Article.
Oksana Putilina
УДК 81371+81367.625=811.112.2=811.161.2(075.8)
STAGES AND CAUSES OF FORMING A
GRAMMATICAL STRUCTURE OF PRESENT-DAY ENGLISH LANGUAGE
(IN
COMPARISON WITH THE UKRAINIAN ONE)
Стаття присвячена характеристиці етапів і причин формування граматичних
змін як підґрунтя інноваційних процесів у сучасній англійській мові (у
зіставленні з українською), встановленню природи і першооснови змін у
граматичному складі (власне-морфологічного, морфолого-синтаксичного і
власне-синтаксичного характеру), а також на лексико-семантичному рівні
англійської мови протягом її історичного розвитку (порівняно з українською),
розмежуванню форм функціонування англійської мови в британському та
американському варіантах (у зіставленні з українською), кваліфікуванню
інтралінгвістичних / екстралінгвістичних причин граматичних змін
інноваційного типу в обох зіставлюваних мовах.
Ключові слова: варіант, власне-неологізм, евфемістична заміна, інноваційний
процес, кельтські мови, конкурування, давньоанглійська, латина, рання сучасна
англійська, пізня сучасна англійська мова, середньоанглійська мова, субдіалект, франко-нормандська мова.
Under the global integration
that results in strengthening intercultural relations, development of wold
"live" languages, including English and Ukrainian, is a rapid
process, particularly not only on the lexical but on grammatical (morphological
and syntactic) level, which is not always predictable. Analysis of examples
adjusted by many authors, particularly A. Paunder, L. Bauer,
R. Lieber et al., who are concerned about this fact, revealed new
structural types of lexical items, such as fragmented elements (splinters), a
significant number of highly unstable compound nouns with a separate writing,
but common unifying accent (block compounds) and a creation on their basis of
compound words / pseudo-compound words (other parts of speech), whose
self-morphological identity usually defined only within a specific context for
the fulfillment of their syntactic role, that is, their appearance has a
strengthening influence of analogy in the formation of composites /
quasi-composites that can lead to structural changes of lexical units,
including the conversion of compound words in derivatives for potentially
unlimited number of new words with unstable and unpredictable
grammatically-categorical indicators [Putilina 2012].
This process is one
of the differential features of Present-day English, especially British (BE)
and American (AmE) variants as competitors that stand out against other
variants of English (such as the Australian or Canadian ones) with multiplicity
of media, geographical area due to extralinguistic factors of their spread –
as the classic, 'original ', 'true' English (as claimed by some supporters of
BE) in the status of one of the languages of international communication and
as less conservative language with signs of language-cosmopolitan, that
absorbed into itself the elements of other languages, which directly
contacted, and in the role of the language of the powerful state in the world
(AmE), respectively. Lack of substantial research in this area makes the relevance of proposed research.
However, a
comprehensive analysis of innovative processes that currently take place in the
English language (as opposed to Ukrainian), primarily on the grammatical level,
not be possible without the differentiation of specific and borrowed items,
events, processes, etc. in modern English in comparison with the Ukrainian that
is the purpose of our study. It is
quite obvious there is a determination of the
main tasks, namely: a characterization of grammatical, lexical and
phonetical processes in Present-day English (in comparison with Ukrainian) and
their historical interpreting, an establishing of the nature and causes of
historical changes in the vocabulary of English (compared with the Ukrainian),
a separation of literary / colloquial functioning form of English (in
comparison with Ukrainian), a classifying types of neologisms in both
languages.
Popularity
of English in the world, as evidenced by the number of native speakers
(according to various sources – from 300 to 400 million) and those who at
least knows it and can use it if necessary as a second language (from 180 to
1800 million) and its status of one of the languages of international
communication is the root cause of the dynamic development of the English, who
have long moved beyond the UK. The fact of
its distribution in 54 countries, the inhabitants of which it is official, and
in more than 30 non-sovereign entities could not impact on the diversity of its
expression, the number of variants, dialects, subdialects, and hence the appearance of a
large number of major changes that affect not only vocabulary but also
grammatical level, which is usually quite resistant to any changes.
According to S. Müller,
dynamics of spreading any language necessarily led to the changes of its
lexical and grammatical forms, but if the process of changes in vocabulary
occurs naturally (due to word-formation and borrowing), the grammatical changes
are more noticeable for a native speaker and especially for those who use a
language as a second one [Müller 2008, p. 9]. A set of grammatical changes
caused "shifts" in all grammatical system of language, resulting may
be particular difficulties that often arise in the modern media of English
(especially in order to whom English is not native) in the process of reading
art texts of 18th-19th centuries, because not only
vocabulary but grammar and then, quite different from today.
In
the period of active formation of the modern English language has become
extremely important so-called competing ("struggle")
organic (actually English) synonyms and synonyms-borrowing when foreign words
which fell to the English vocabulary, displaced specific English or those that
come in English language much earlier and are adapted so that native speakers
were perceived as proper English, to other areas, particularly at the periphery
of active usage, mostly labeled "obsolete"
or "out-of-date" (to
mid. 20th century) / "nonprestigious"
(2d half of 20th century). Because this process
changes in the semantic structure of words occurred within new-formed
oppositional pairs or in their stylistic characteristics. The most active in
such changes were observed in Middle English period because at this stage of
English language accounts for a significant number of stylistic changes in the
specific words of English origin under the influence of token-borrowing. So,
actually the English noun foe after
the appearance of the noun enemi
(modern version – enemy) has gained
the status of poeticisms and disappeared from active use that can trace its
operation today. The same can be noticed to other nouns, eg. Old English folk and dale were pushed by counterparts people and valley with
the movement of much narrower scope and limits of semantic structure and
compatibility properties [Stockwell, Minkova 2001].
Overall, this
process does not cease now, and can lead to serious changes in the semantics of
words, cf.: verb starve in the Old
English period meant 'dead', but under pressure of synonym die with the same value meaning of starve initially narrowed to 'die of hunger', and then lost a seme
'death', and in the modern English it is used to denote the process of
starvation, but not with the obligatory tragic ending. A similar case of
interference in the semantic structure of words, only to have entanglement of principles
of separation into meaningful parts of words in the English language and the
source language, which in the English linguistics marked as
pseudo-etymologization (or wrong / false etymologization), demonstrates by the
noun reindeer, in which the second
significant component marked an animal in the Old English period: under the
influence of French animal primary
meaning narrowed to naming not just any animal in general, but only one kind of
animals – namely deer [Onysko, Michel 2010]. It is noteworthy that the objects
of these changes were most frequently used components of sentence structure,
ie, subject / object and predicate, which for English (as a whole, and for
Ukrainian) are required for making sentence and that at the morphological level
is usually expressed by nouns (wider – names) and verbs.
By extralinguistic
reasons of changes in the value of existing and emergence of new words in
Ukrainian and English languages should be attributed primarily euphemistic
replacement – usually more sensitive indication of subjects and events,
from unwanted to mention moral and ethical reasons (and for both contrasted
languages the presence of a significant number of euphemisms, created to avoid
the use of words with clearly determinate seme "death, ruin" type pass away, perish, join the better, kick the bucket, go to green pastures,
вирушити / перейти в інший (кращий) світ, вирушити на небеса, зіграти в ящик, etc.) is characteristic, cf.: fatal ‘смертельний’ → inoperable
‘неоперабельний’. Note that euphemisation affects all levels of speech style
and not a mere synonym replacement – in the selected words for this purpose there is a new
component value, eg., pass away – not only fly in space, but also
change the physical condition, and the
better is not only an assessment of quality, but also to indicate the
completeness, the end.
Overall, euphemisation often used by the media to mitigate the predicted
effect on the audience of readers (viewers, listeners) of certain events of
political, commercial or social nature (this trend is especially distinct in
the English, particularly in American, mass media (in comparison with
Ukrainian)): starvation ‘голод’→ undernourishment ‘недоїдання, недостатнє / неналежне харчування’, second hand ‘старий (одяг)’→ pre-owned ‘той, який був у вжитку,
неновий’, unemployed ‘безробітний’ → redundant ‘звільнений (унаслідок
скоречення штату)’, crisis ‘криза’ → depression ‘депресія’, salary cuts ‘зниження заробітної платні’
→ adjustment ‘регулювання,
коригування, вирівнювання (зарплатні)’ etc. A typical manifestation of this is
the principle of political correctness
‘політичної коректності’: that phrase comes from correct thinking ‘правильна, загальноприйнята думка’, first used in
the speech of Chinese leader Mao Dzedun in the beginning of 80th years and applied in cases when
it comes to issues of race / ethnicity, gender or social relationships.
However, misuse of euphemisms frequently causes serious criticism from
English-speaking readership, mostly – American periodicals (cf. the quote listed V. Yelisejeva to appeal to English
rubrics
in German «Tune»:
«Government spokesmen talk about REDEPLOYMENT of American troops; they mean
WITHDRAWAL. When sociologists refer to BLACKS LIVING IN SLUMS they are likely
to mumble something about NON-WHITES IN A CULTURALLY DEPRIVED ENVIRONMENT» [Елисеева 2003, c. 85]).
In general, the formation of English grammar can distinguish several
periods: Old English (7th c. BC – 1100), Middle English (1100 –
1450/1500) and Modern English (1500 – till now) (Early Modern English (1500 –
1700) and Late Modern English (1700 – until today)) [Shay 2008], the gradual
change of which greatly affected the formation of grammatical structure of
present-day English in the manifestation, which we know out.
An
important factor which usually
referenced
by majority of
Anglicists [Algeo, Pyles 2009; Barber 2000; Millward, Hayes 2011; Shay 2008] is
the absolute dominance of extralinguistic factors that determine the formation
of the whole array of English – from phonetics to stylistics [Путіліна 2011, с. 7-14]. Thus,
during the Roman Empire along the Northern coast of Europe (between the rivers
Elbe and the Rhine and Jutlandsky Peninsula) settled peoples who spoke Germanic
languages (Angles, Saxons and Jutes, who often called Anglo-Saxons) and who have began to move to Britain in the middle of the 5th century. The influence of
Latin, which used by the Roman merchants, who traveled among the tribes, had
already become noticeable (cf. kettle ‘чайник’, wine ‘вино’, cheese ‘сир’, butter ‘масло’, etc., or the formation of an extensive system of forms of tenses
inherent of Latin, which can be compared with the development and establishment
of tenses forms in Ukrainian grammar under the influence of Old Church
Slavonic).
However, not only Latin, which always mentioned by historians of
English, speaking of this period, influenced the formation of English grammar,
as in 4th century in areas where the Anglo-Saxons were settled,
the status of native was so called Celtic, more precisely – the Celtic
languages (Brythonic (Welsh, Cornish, and partially – Breton), Goidelic, in
particular Irish, and to a lesser extent – continental languages, for example,
Gallic) [Algeo, Pyles 2009; Millward,
Hayes 2011].
Due to the fact that in 4th cent. the Rome gradually lost its strength
because of attacks from the East Goths and Anglo-Saxons from the North, the Celts, who
inhabited the territory of modern Scotland and Wales, begin to expand their
borders, while in 410 AD the last Roman emperor left the group of the British Isles the Celts and
Anglo-Saxons, among whom had already started the war, which lasted nearly a
century and ended with almost the final extermination of the Celts with the
introduction of 550 AD state of
Anglo-Saxons – England. The population of
this country has continued to speak so-called Celtic language up to 7th
century.
In terms of modern English grammar, the emergence of verbal Continuous forms, which characterized
the Celtic languages [Millward, Hayes 2011, p. 41], the formation and gradual
reduction of case paradigm of nouns, as in the Irish language or in a group of
Brythonic languages, using phrases with the participle to implement of
aspect-temporal values and typical for Old Irish and Welsh languages in
Early and Middle Welsh periods VSO-model of sentence (verb
(predicate)-subject-object), that partly (except interposition of the subject)
preserved in the imperative and some types of incomplete sentences, and
SVO-model, typical for clauses of composite sentences, are important [MacAulay 1992, p. 89-92; Sproat
1985, p. 173-216].
Holistic
and systematic influence of Latin is fixed after 597, ie after the adoption of Christianity by Anglo-Saxons and the emergence of
the
church books. This period – the
period of Old English – is usually associated with two state entities:
Northumbria (Old English: Norƥanhymbra /
Norƥhymbre), which is associated epic poem "Beowulf", and the
Kingdom of Wessex (Kingdom of the West Saxons) (Old English: Westseaxna rīce) (which becomes the
center of power after the weakening power of Northumbria), which King Alfred
the Great (reign – 871-900) founded schools and instructed to translate books
from Latin in English (cf. with the activity of Yaroslav the Wise in Kyiv Rus).
Today,
English grammar like Latin, has two voices (active and passive), three moods (indicative, conditional and
imperative), an extended system of verbal forms of time, including simple forms
(Present), perfectly forms (Perfect), distinction of action and prior action (the Future in the Past Tense). In the syntactic aspect should be
emphasized fixing under the influence of Latin syntax such features as free word order (sometimes), but in most cases each sentence
followed by a traditional indicator – the subject in primary form (or nominative case, for
example, in Slavic languages,
particularly in Ukrainian), and the appearance of a compound nominal predicate
(Predicative) [Shay 2008].
In the Middle English period, in addition to Latin, the formation of
English also is influenced by Norman-French language, which is brought with the
Norman conquerors, and it served the function of official in England in
the 11th-14th centuries. However, the influence of
Norman-French largely had affected the phonetic and the lexical levels than
grammar [Путіліна 2011], as among
the grammatical consequences of interaction between the two languages most
linguists say domineering tendency to observance of the fact that today
consider direct word order (the subject-predicate object) with the transfer of
predicate / part of predicate in the preposition on the subject in
interrogative sentences, the principles of the use of definite and indefinite
articles as determinants of nouns, and a modern variant of the personal pronoun
in 3 person, plural they ‘вони’ with variations in the object
case them ‘їм, їх’ and possessive
pronoun their ‘їхній, їхня, їхнє, їхні’ [Lipka 2002]. Thanks to these features the
texts written by Middle English language is understandable for Modern English
media, as both grammatical structure and lexical content are more similar to
modern version.
If
in this context to analyze Early Modern English, a period of which coincides with the period
of the English Renaissance (remember that the works of William Shakespeare is
present this period of English language), then we should mention the changes back touched not
grammar, but this time – phonetics as between 1400-1600 in English there were two phonetic processes
that influenced the language in general and distinction of Middle English and
Modern English (except language Yola, enjoyed by the residents of two Irish baronies Forth
and Bargy in County
Wexford to the middle of 19th
century): decline an unstressed
vowel at the end of word and Great Vowel Shift, ie a systematic change of the long vowels in accented
syllables, to which a pronunciation of vowels was
similar to pronunciation in Latin, and
phonetics is similar to the Netherlands or Low German (Low Saxon) [Jespersen 1922] (there is interesting that in Modern
English spelling usually remained identical to the Middle English one). At the same time and in the
grammar changes have occurred caused by the introduction of the principle of normalization of the
regional dialects of English by the first English publisher W. Caxton (70-80s years of the 15th century),
resulting in a unification of the case paradigm, sentence structure and syntactic relations
between its components, which increased the break between spoken and written
English variants.
The final fixing of spelling, orthoepic and grammar rules held in late period of Early Modern English – at the beginning of the formation of Late Modern English, the fixation of its is a series of lexicographical works that do not lose their value up today, including dictionaries: Robert Cawdrey`s "A Table Alphabeticall", 1604 (‘Перелік
алфавітний’) (the first English explanatory dictionary), John Bullokar`s "An English Expositor", 1616 (‘Англійський
тлумачник’), Henry Cockeram`s "The English Dictionarie or a
New Interpreter of Hard English Words", 1623 (‘Англійський словник або Новий
інтерпретатор складних слів англійської мови’) (its name was first used the
word Dictionarie ‘словник’), Thomas Blount`s "Glossographia", 1656 (‘Глосографія’), John Kersey`s "A New English
Dictionary", 1702 (‘Новий англійський словник’) and "Dictionarium
Anglo-Britannicum", 1708 (‘Словник англо-британський’), Nathaniel Bailey`s "An Universal
Etymological English Dictionary", 1721 (‘Універсальний етимологічний англійський словник’) and "Dictionarium
Britannicum", 1736 (‘Британський словник’), Samuel Johnson`s "A Dictionary of
English Language", 1755 (‘Словник англійської мови’) and, finally, establishing
by the London Philological Society in 1859 publication "New English
Dictionary on Historical Principles, NED" in 10 volumes (‘Новий англійський словник на історичних принципах’), 1884-1928, with the
republishing in 1933 in 12 volumes "Oxford English Dictionary" (‘Оксфордський англійський словник’) and 4 additional volumes,
published from 1972 to 1986.
Currently in the process of learning English grammar should be
considered two groups of factors at least: historical background and tendencies
that have the force so far and provoke the appearance of changes including –
grammatical, on the one hand, and interpolarity and cosmopolitism of English
because of its regional distribution and ensure the functioning of
socio-political and economic spheres of human activity, on the other. This
leads to consider evolutionary changes of English from the "average"
option, known in Britain 300 years ago, to a variety of variants and forms of
existence in the lands where the British were offered this language: America,
Australia, New Zealand, Africa, India and others. And the English returned in
modified form to the British Isles with immigrants, goods, technology, etc.
However, there is the internal stratification of BE, because inside it there
are three types of language: Conservative
English – the language of Royal Family and Parliament, Received Pronunciation (RP), or BBC English – accepted standard,
language of educated part of London and southeast of England, "proper
English", literary English, language of the best private schools (Eton,
Winchester, Harrow, Rugby) and universities (Oxford, Cambridge), and Advanced English – language of
youth – the most active and most sensitive type of BE, which actively
incorporates a new from variants of other English, first of all – from AmE. And
this is excluding dialects: Northern, Central, Southwestern, Southeastern,
Scottish, Welsh and Irish.
From widely used variants of English Irish (Irish English, IE),
Australian (Australian English, AuE) and New Zealand variants (New Zealand
English, NZE) in character are closer to the BE, while the American variant
(American English, AmE) formed, in fact, own vision of not only vocabulary and
phonetics of English, and, above all, grammar, and there is a 3 AmE dialects
(Northern, Central and Southen), each of which is divided into several
subdialects, most colorful and best known of which, due to the movie and music,
is Californian subdialect (interesting that the pronunciation which is
characteristic for it, commonly called "real American pronunciation",
and the Northern dialect, language of East Coast – New England, where once came
the first settlers from Britain – linguists feel rather close to the BE
[Kastovsky 1991; Labov 2010; Lass 1994]).
Thus, all this leads the ambiguity of correctly interpreting changes and their
causes that have occurred (and still going) over the past decades in the
grammar and vocabulary of English ie if we consider historic changes that took
place in the grammar of English, the vast majority of those innovations about
which today Anglicist debate, there is not a random phenomenon, caused only
extralinguistic factors, but well-motivated in terms of internal organization
of the language process, characterized by signs of consistency and continuity.
Perspective of this study is to analyze
the processes that deepen the internal stratification of modern English and
Ukrainian vocabularies as a whole system within each of the languages the whole
and its individual variants in English (AM) (British, American, Australian,
etc.), the latter more deeper trends in the breeding options for English as a
relatively independent entities and strengthening of the sociolinguistic
factors that determine the formation of vocabulary as well as language forms
exist mainly in the Ukrainian language (UM) (literary and spoken forms (UM) and
literary / common, colloquial (AM)) taking into account the relationships
between regional, social and situational parameters that lead to the selection
of specific lexical items by carriers of both compared languages based on
communicative situation.
References.
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В
статье рассматривается характеристика этапов и причин формирования
грамматических изменений как основы инновационных процессов в современном
английском языке (в сопоставлении с украинским), устанавливается природа и
первопричины изменений в грамматическом составе (собственно-морфологичекого,
морфолого-синтаксического и собственно-синтаксического характера), а также на
лексико-семантическом уровне английского языка на протяжении его исторического развития (в сравнении с украинским),
дифференцируются формы функционирования английского языка в британском и
американском вариантах (в сопоставлении с украинским), квалифицируются
интралингвистические / эктралингвистические причины грамматических изменений
инновационного типа в сопоставляемых языках.
Ключевые слова: вариант,
собственно неологизм, эвфемистическая
замена, инновационный процесс, кельтские языки, конкурирование, староанглийский
язык, латынь, ранний современный английский язык, поздний современный
английский язык, среднеанглийский язык, субдиалект, франко-нормандский язык.
The paper denoted to a characterization of stages and
causes of forming a grammatical structure as
basis of innovative processes in Present-day English language (in
comparison with Ukrainian), an establishing of the nature and prime causes of
changes in the grammatical organization (proper morphological,
morphological-syntactic and proper syntactic features) and on the
lexically-semantic level of English during its historical development (compared
with the Ukrainian), a separation of functioning forms in British and American
English (in comparison with Ukrainian), a classifying intralinguistic /
extralinguistic changes of innovative type in both languages.
Keywords: variant, proper neologism, euphemistic
replacement, innovative processes, Celtic languages, competing
("struggle"), Old English, Latin, Early Modern English, Late Modern
English, Middle English, subdialect, Norman-French language.
Надійшла до редакції 22 серпня
2012 року.
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