Article.
Olga Klymenko УДК 811.111’367.625 EXPLICIT AND IMPLICIT WAYS OF RESOURCE ENCODING IN
ENGLISH PHYSICAL ACTIVITY VERBS The paper deals with the analysis of information
concerning the action resource in English verbs of physical activity. The
action resource is understood as things, substances, energy, etc. the doer
employs to succeed in carrying out the action directed at the object. The paper
provides the resource classification as well as the ways the information about
this action participant is given in the verb definition: implicit and explicit
encoding. The research provides some statistics concerning the ways different
resource components are specified in the definition of physical activity verbs.
Some conclusions are derived concerning the tendencies in resource encoding in
English verbs of physical activity. Keywords: verbs of physical
activity, the subject of the action, the object of the action, resource,
instrument, means, implication, explication. 1.
Introduction The ability to
encode the event with the set of its participants secures for the verb its
central position in the lexical paradigm [Апресян 1995; Уфимцева 2011; Падучева 2004]. The verb semantics
reflects different facets of relations between the action and its actants as
well as the action characteristics. However, the verb definition doesn’t
highlight information about the event homogeneously some components being represented
explicitly or implicitly. In this paper we address the issue of resource encoding
in English verbs of physical activity (PhAVs) definitions. The analysis carried
out in this paper is supposed to shed light on the variability in resource
encoding in the verb class under study. To outline the question posed above we focus on resource types available in
the PhAVs definitions and the ways this action participant can be specified.
The statistics of sample processing illustrates the main features of resource
encoding in the PhAVs lexical entries. The
novelty of the analysis rests on the treatment of the implicit components
as the other action participants entailments. The action resource is treated as
a complex semantic valency realized by a number of semantic actants. The
research contributes to the general semantic theory providing some information
on different ways of event components encoding in language units. The paper
provides the model for semantic description of correlation between the action components
and their reflection in the lexical entries. The PhAVs are
understood in this paper as verbs denoting physical actions purposefully
carried out by the agent and directed at the object (consider examples (1-15)).
The members of this subclass are associated with such semantic properties as
agentivity, purposefulness, causativity, physical contact of the agent with the
object. The minimum semantic model of PhAVs includes the subject (the one who
acts) and the object (something or someone acted upon). Among the optional
participants we find the resource – some objects, substances or power the agent
engages in the action to achieve the aspired effect, e.g.: (1) to mop – to wash a floor using a mop[1]. The relationship
between the verb meaning and the encoded event structure has received
substantial attention. With the basics of relational grammar outlined by
L. Tesnière
in the first half of the XXth c. [Теньер 1988] this issue was highlighted in terms of
semantic syntax foregrounding the predicate and its arguments bearing certain
semantic roles. The assortment of roles and their interpretation varies
depending on the focus of the research. Among the commonly cited concepts we
find the Fillmore’s case frame theory [Филлмор 1981], the semantic and syntactic verb
governing models by Ju. Apresjan [Апресян 1995], the diatheses theory by A. Holodovych [Холодович 1969], thematic roles by
David R. Dowty [Dowty 1991], linking rules by B. Levin and
M. Rappaport Hovav [Levin, Rappaport Hovav 1997].In
(1) the doer performs the action to wash directed at the
object floor. To carry out the
action the doer involves an object a mop mentioned in the
definition and some substance water
the presence of which is inferred from the information about the basic
operation in this situation to wash. Thus, the
resource of the action in (1) includes a mop and some water. Though being
extensively covered the issues of correlation between lexical semantics and
syntax continues to pose a challenge for linguistic theory. A lot of open
questions are found in the sphere of implicit information in the verb
semantics. In this respect the ways of the action resource encoding present a
fertile exploration ground and justify the relevance of the present research. 2. Resource Types in the PhAVs The analysis of
1600 PhAVs definitions revealed a variety of resource types the basic two being
instrument and means. These semantic roles can be found in some semantic roles
inventories [Апресян 1995; Alexiadou,
Schäfer 2006; Kaliuščenko 1988]. Ju.D. Apresjan draws a line between the two
roles featuring the means as something which is exhausted or spent [Апресян 1995: 76]. V.D. Kaliushchenko
mentions that a number of German verbs derived from nouns are characterized by
some semantic elements specifying the instrument or the means of the action
denoted by the verb [Kaliuščenko 1988: 54]. In the present
paper the instrument and means are treated as the two main types of the action
resource the former being something the doer operates in the course of action
(a mop in (1)) and the latter being something the doer uses (water in (1)).
Each resource type can be further divided into a number of subtypes. 2.1. Instrument Subtypes in the PhAVs Definitions. The sample analysis
revealed the following instrument subtypes: 2.1.1. Instruments Which do not Take Energy. Within this subtype
we find the two varieties: Tools – objects
which are usually held in hand in the course of action, e.g.: (2) to saw – to cut something with a saw. Devices – sets of objects or details working together,
some mechanisms which may be fixed on the ground and set in action by the
agent, e.g.: (3) to weave – to make cloth … on a machine called a
loom. 2.1.2. Instruments Which Take Energy. Here belong appliances whose work involves energy transformation, e.g.: (4) to blow-dry – to
dry your hair with a hairdryer . 2.2. Means Subtypes in the PhAVs Definitions. The sample
analysis revealed the following Means subtypes: 2.2.1 Energy –
some power affecting the object directly or via the appliance e.g.: (5) to burn – to damage or destroy something with fire. 2.2.2. Substance – liquid, gas, oil, etc.
engaged in the action, e.g.: (6) to bottle-feed – to feed a baby with milk from a
bottle …. 3.2.3. Things – objects used to carry out the
action, e.g: (7) to bandage – to wrap a
bandage around an injured part of your body. 3. The Amount of Information about the Resource in the
PhAVs Definitions The information
amount criterion made it possible to single out two ways of resource encoding in
PhAVs lexical entries: explication and
implication. 3.1. Resource Explication in the PhAV Definition. The resource
explication may be taxonomic or descriptive. In case of taxonomic explication
the resource component is named, its class being specified, e.g.: (8) to whip
– to hit someone with a whip In descriptive
explication some features of the resource component are specified, e.g.: (9) to prick
– to make a very small hole in
the surface of something with a sharp object Unlike example (8)
with taxonomic explication in the PhAV entry (9) the class of the tool is not
specified though it is described as being sharp. Thus example (9)
illustrates descriptive resource explication. 3.2. Resource Implication in the PhAVs Definition. Resource
implication is based on the associative logical inferences of action
participants from the information about other participants given explicitly,
e.g.: (10) to
boil – to cook food in water
that is boiling In example (10) the
means of the action water that is boiling
is explicated. Logical processing of the situation brings in the focus of
attention two more resource components: energy with which the water is heated
and the container in which this water is placed. The action denoted by the verb
is impossible to carry out without the two resource components mentioned above.
Thus we may say that energy and container are the implicitly encoded resource
components. 4. The Ways of Resource Implication in the PhAVs
Definition The analysis
carried out revealed four ways of resource implication in the PhAVs
definitions. Resource components can be associated with an object of the
action, operations performed during the action and they can also specify each
other. 4.1. Resource Implication through the Object of the Action.
The
instrument or the means of the action can be inferred from certain features of
the object of the action e.g.: (11) to skim – to remove a
substance that is floating on the surface of a liquid. Example (11) does
not explicate the instrument involved in the action. Anyway the physical
properties of the object of the action – liquid
– suggest that the action can not be carried out without a special instrument
such as a spoon or a skimmer. So we may say that the instrument is determined
by the object of the action. 4.2. Resource Implication through the Operations Carried
out in the Action. The instrument or the means of the action can be
inferred from the operations performed in the course of the action, e.g: (12) to tunnel – to dig a tunnel; (13) to tack – to stitch pieces of cloth together with long
loose stitches. Though being not
specified in examples (12), (13) the resource can be inferred from the
operations defining the action: to dig (12), to stitch (13). The operation to dig (12) implies a spade, a shovel,
an excavator, etc.. The action to stitch implies a needle as an
instrument and some thread as a means. Thus we may say that the resource can be
implied by the operations carried out in the action. 4.3. The Instrument Implication through the means. Mentioned in the definition
the means of the action can imply the instrument, e.g.: (14) to riddle – to make a lot of holes in someone or
something, especially with bullets. In example (14) the
specified means of the action bullets implies
the instrument a gun. 4.4. The Means
Implication through the Instrument. The means of the action can be inferred from the instrument specified in
the definition, e.g.: (15) to write – to use a pen to make words, numbers or symbols. In example (15) the
instrument a pen is explicated in the
definition. Knowing the structure of this instrument we can say that a sort of
ink is used together with it. It has become clear
in course of the sample analysis that the instrument of the action is encoded
in 1218 PhAVs entries:
Table 1. Instrument Encoding in the English Physical
Activity Verbs
№
|
Instrument Type
|
Explication in the Verb Entry
|
Implication in the Verb Entry
|
1
|
A Tool
|
to crochet, to mop, to brush, to chisel, to fork,
etc.
|
to bury,
to whittle, to carve, to darn, to flay, to reap, to manicure, to scale, etc.
|
Quantity of examples found
|
430
(35,3%)
|
406
(33,3%)
|
2
|
An Appliance Taking Energy
|
to
blow-dry, to
print, to spotlight, to whizz, to microwave, etc.
|
to rewind, to
x-ray, to
quick-freeze, to weld, etc.
|
Quantity of examples found
|
198
(16,3%)
|
83
(6,8%)
|
3
|
A Device
|
to
shoot, to winch, to snare, to weave,
etc.
|
to blast, to riddle, to shell, to
torpedo, etc.
|
Quantity of examples found
|
54
(4,4%)
|
47
(3,9%)
|
Total number of the PhAVs
with the instrument component
|
1218
(100%)
|
The research has
shown that 989 sample examples contain information about different types of
means engaged in the action: Table 2. Means
Encoding in the English Physical Activity Verbs
№
|
Means Type
|
Explication in the Verb Entry
|
Implication in the Verb
Entry
|
1
|
Substance
|
to
cast,
to
douse, to anoint, to baste, to dilute, to fumigate, to flour, to French
polish, etc.
|
to
brew, to moisten, to baste, to bath, etc.
|
Quantity of examples found
|
338
(34,2%)
|
124
(12,5%)
|
2
|
Thing
|
to staple, to
bandage, to brace, to clamp, to cork, to
wedge, to floss, to tack, etc.
|
to bind, to
bale, to bundle, to suspend, etc.
|
Quantity of examples found
|
198
(16,3%)
|
255
(25,8%)
|
3
|
Energy
|
to shock, to
steam, etc.
|
to
brand, to reheat, to
temper, etc.
|
Quantity of examples found
|
54
(4,4%)
|
132
(13,3%)
|
Total number of the PhAVs
with the means component
|
989
(100%)
|
5. Conclusion The analysis of 1600 English verbs of physical activity made it possible
to outline some tendencies concerning the ways they encode information about
the resource of the action. The conclusions derived from the research carried out
are as follows: 5.1. The resource valency in PhAVs is
realized by the instrument and means semantic actants. Within the instrument
the following subtypes can be singled out: a tool, a device, an appliance. The
means resource type embraces energy, substance, a thing. 5.2. Resource
components can be encoded in the PhAVs explicitly and implicitly. Being
explicated the resource components are specified in the taxonomic or
descriptive ways. Implicit encoding rests on the logical associative connection
with the other action participants. 5.3. Explicit
resource encoding prevails in the PhAVs entries (Tables 1, 2). 5.4. The most
frequently specified instrument subtype in the PhAVs is the tool (Table 1). The
most frequently specified means subtype is substance (Table 2). 5.5. Instruments and
means commonly used in the real action are not explicated in the verb
definition but find the implicit encoding. This ventures an assumption that the
less common the resource in the real situation of action the higher the
precision of its description in the lexical entry. In this reference the data
obtained in the course of analysis position the tool and the means as the most
variable classes of material objects engaged in physical activity. The research of the
correlation between the way the resource components are encoded in the verb
meaning and their syntactic realization.
[1] Here and further the definitions are cited from Macmillan English Dictionary for Advanced
Learners (consider the Sources and Abbreviations).
References.
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/ Ю. Д. Апресян. – М. : Наука,
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Филлмор, Ч. Дело о падеже / Ч. Филлмор [Пер. с англ.] // Новое в зарубежной лингвистике
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каузативных конструкций. Морфологический каузатив [Текст] / А. А. Холодович. – Л. : Наука, 1969. – 311 с. Alexiadou, Schäfer
2006: Alexiadou, A., Schäfer, F. Instrument Subjects are Agents
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Edition [Text]. – CD-ROM © Macmillan Publishers Limited 2007.
Text © A&C Black Publishers Ltd 2007. У статті
досліджується один з аспектів семантики дієслів фізичної діяльності, а саме –
віддзеркалення в їх тлумаченні інформації про ресурс дії. Під ресурсом дії
розуміються предмети, речовини, енергія тощо, які виконавець залучає для
досягнення необхідного ефекту по відношенню до об’єкта дії. У дослідженні
подана класифікація аналізованого учасника дії, розглядаються різні типи
представлення ресурсних компонентів в дефініції дієслів фізичної діяльності:
імплікація та експліцитна конкретизація. Наводяться дані про частотність
представлення різновидів ресурсу за допомогою різних типів конкретизації у
словниковій статті. На підставі отриманих результатів зроблені висновки про основні
тенденції конкретизації ресурсу дії в англійських дієсловах фізичної
діяльності.
Ключові
слова: дієслова фізичної діяльності, суб’єкт дії, об’єкт дії, ресурс,
інструмент, засіб, імплікація, експлікація.
Available 20 September 2013.
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