Article.
Ekaterina Vinogradova
УДК 81-116.1
THE GRAMMATICALIZATION PATHS
(NEW PREPOSITIONS IN RUSSIAN LANGUAGE)
This paper attempts to apply the implications of the
grammaticalization theory to the Russian prepositional system. Special
attention is given to reconstruction of the grammaticalization path "noun à preposition" (example – evolution of Russian
prepositional unit лицом к лицу с кем-чем ‘face to face with smth.-smb.’, ‘facing smb.-smth.’)
and to design of a grammaticalization scale for 8 prepositional units including
somatic noun глаз ‘eye’ on basis of their grammaticalization level
determined.
Keywords: grammaticalization, grammaticalization path,
grammaticalization scale, Russian preposition, prepositional unit, somatic noun.
Over the course of
the last decades, a great amount of data has been published on the
grammaticalization theory [Lehman 2002; Hopper, Traugott 2003], which concerns
with its sources and channels studies, its word lexicon creation, semantic maps
construction and a wide range of typology researches. The observations executed
during the research in the project "Slavic Prepositions in Synchrony and
Diachrony Aspects: Morphology and Syntax" [Всеволодова, Кукушкина, Поликарпов 2013; Канюшкевіч 2008-2010; Загнiтко та ін. 2007; Славянските 2007] have convinced us that
grammaticalization is very active for Russian prepositional field. Therefore
the purpose of
the paper is to study paths and stages of grammaticalization
(grammaticalization scale) within the field pointed out. The topic seems to be
quite an actual problem not only theoretically as a grammaticalization process
in Russian prepositional system description but for practical application as
well – the results can be used in lexicography e. g. for dictionaries –
new prepositional articles should be included.
To achieve the
objective it seems to be necessary to analyze Russian prepositional units in
order to define their place on grammaticalization scale and to show the possible
grammaticalization paths. Prepositions and units functioning as prepositions
have also been an object of permanent Russian scholars’ interest. The eminent
point for us is studies dealing with transition of words belonging to different
parts of speech into prepositional units [Шереметьева 2008; Шиганова 2001]. Nevertheless these papers don’t regard
to grammaticalization itself, its paths and scales.
Before we delve
into specifies of prepositional grammaticalization as such, it is necessary to
clarify some key terms alluding to grammaticalization and Russian prepositional
system. "Grammaticalization is defined as the development from lexical to
grammatical forms and from grammatical to even more grammatical forms"
[Heine, Kuteva 2002: 2]. The development of grammatical form depends on
the construction they belong to, that is why it’s essential to study
construction as a whole but not an independent word, i. e. prepositional
units. Obviously Givon’s aphorism "Today’s morphology is yesterday’s
syntax" is not out of place here. Aiming to observe grammaticalization
paths we focus on the main mechanisms grammaticalization involves:
a)
desemantization
(or "semantic bleaching") – loss in meaning content;
b)
extension (or
context generalization) – use in new contexts;
c)
decategorialization[1] – loss in morphosyntactic properties characteristic
of lexical or other less grammaticalized forms (for grammaticalization criteria
relevant for Russian prepositional units see also [Всеволодова 2011]).
Under the influence
of these mechanisms new prepositions appear, e. g. in English: event (noun) à in the event of
(preposition), head (noun) à ahead
of (preposition), back (noun) à in
the back of (preposition), respect
(noun)à with
respect to (preposition) etc.; in Russian: течение (noun, ‘flow’,
‘course’) à в течение чего (preposition, ‘during’), следствие (noun, ‘consequence’) à вследствие чего (preposition, ‘in consequence off’, ‘owing to’), отличие (noun, ‘distinction’) à в отличие от чего (preposition, ‘in
contrast to’, ‘unlike’), связь (noun, ‘bond’, ‘connection’) à в связи с чем (preposition,
‘because of’, ‘in view of’), подобие (noun, ‘resemblance’)à наподобие чего (preposition, ‘like’), путь (noun, ‘way’) à путем чего (preposition, ‘by’,
‘by means of’), etc.
It’s well known
that the sources of grammaticalization are usually presented by a restricted
set of notions. Thus, demonstrative pronouns can develop into articles (German
definite articles der, die, das), verbs of motion evolve into tense and aspect
auxiliaries (English: to go à I am going
to read a book (future tense auxiliary)), nouns expressing parts of body
often become prepositions [Svorou 1994] (English: head à ahead
of; Persian: bar ru-ye miz ‘on the table’,
literally ‘on the face of table’) and so on (see above-mentioned papers of
Ch. Lehman, P. J. Hopper, B. Heine, etc.). Therefore it seems
reasonable to pay special attention to certain lexical groups while studying
grammaticalization path "nounà preposition". So the
target object for us is somatic nouns, or nouns expressing human body parts[2]. Nevertheless we
should admit that the Russian prepositional units in question unambiguously
serving a grammatical function still have a morphosyntactic structure of their
earlier uses as noun structures (перед лицом кого – ‘in the face of’, ‘in front
of’, от лица кого – ‘on behalf of’, на глазах (у) кого – ‘in smb’s
presence’, etc.). However, it appeared that such items express not only space
meaning in Russian[3] but become more
and more abstract ("semantic bleaching") conveying relational and
characterization senses.
As far as
prepositional system in Russian concerns we should mention that theoretical
basis adopted here is the one of the project "Slavic Prepositions in
Synchrony and Diachrony Aspects: Morphology and Syntax". It concerns with
a very broad interpretation of prepositional units – for such are taken all
units serving a grammatical function of preposition i. e. both proper
prepositions (introducing functional parts of speech and having no other
functions except for prepositional) and prepositional equivalents – units
serving a grammatical function of preposition in certain contexts, but still
representing notional words.
This article
explores
1) a
grammaticalization path "noun à preposition" by an
example of the prepositional unit лицом к лицу с кем-чем (‘face to face
with smb.-smth.’, ‘facing smb.-smth.’);
2) a
grammaticalization scale of 8 prepositional units, including lexeme глаз ‘eye’.
1. A grammaticalization path "noun à preposition"
As it has been
already noticed grammaticalization is inevitably bonded to desemantization ,
context generalization and decategorialization. Here we consider the
grammaticalization path of the prepositional unit лицом к лицу с кем-чем (‘face to face with
smb.-smth.’, ‘facing smb.-smth.’) starting with non-grammaticalized uses
(ex. 1) further to the most grammaticalized (ex. 5).
(1) Он столкнулся лицом к лицу с бывшей женой (‘He clashed his
ex-wife face to face’, ‘He faced his ex-wife’). Here we collide with notional,
or nominative use of the noun лицо ‘face’: его лицо (‘his face’), лицо бывшей жены (‘my ex-wife’s face’) and therefore can eliminate лицом к лицу (‘face to face’)
easily: Он столкнулся с бывшей женой (‘He clashed his
ex-wife’) à
(2) Он
столкнулся лицом к лицу с опасностью
(‘He
faced a danger’), where его лицо (‘his face’)
appears to be still direct, notional use but *лицо опасности (*’a danger’s face’) is not obviously. The elimination
of лицом к лицу (‘face to face’) is quite possible: Он столкнулся с опасностью (‘He stood against a danger’) à
(3) Человечество
оказалось лицом к лицу с опасностью (‘The mankind
turned out to face the danger’). Both
*лицо человечества (*’the mankind’s
face’) and *лицо опасности (*’the danger’s face’) are
not in use. The item лицом к лицу (‘face to face’) is obligatory: *человечество
оказалось с опасностью (*‘the mankind turned out the danger’) à
(4) Я купил дом лицом к лицу с храмом (‘I bought a house facing the temple’), where we
observe a noun modifier Какой дом? (‘What kind of house?’) – Дом лицом к лицу с храмом (‘a house facing the
temple’); both *лицо дома (‘*a house’s
face’) and *лицо храма (‘*the temple’s
face’) are inadequate, thus лицом к лицу (‘face to face’) can’t be omitted: *Я купил дом с храмом (*I bought a house with a
temple) – the considerable semantic shift appears à
(5) книга Н. Хрущева «Лицом к лицу с Америкой» (‘N. Khrushchev’s book "America face to face"),
with the independent use of the item лицом к лицу (‘face to face’), which
elimination is unfeasible.
As for the
desemantization it’s quite obvious that the meaning develops from the space one
in (1) to more abstract senses: (2) object, (3) state, (4) characterization,
(5) relation. Exx. 1-5 represent thus a grammaticalization path involving
desemantization , context generalization. Having acquired grammatical meaning
this form tends to become increasingly divergent from its first uses: it loses
in categorical properties characteristic of its first uses, hence undergoing
decategorialization. We would like to emphasize that in the most grammaticalized
contexts (exx. 3-5) the unit лицом к лицу c кем-чем (‘face to face
with smb.-smth.’) serves as a proper preposition and deserves in our opinion a
special dictionary article.
2. A grammaticalization scale
In this part we
explore prepositional units, including lexeme глаз (‘eye’), describe each unit
and construct grammaticalization scale out of these units. We focus here on 8
prepositional units which were singled out during continuous study of idioms
and contexts with the lexeme глаз (‘eye’):
a)
глазами кого-чего (‘through the eyes of’),
b)
глазом кого (‘with the eye of’),
c)
в глаза1 кому-чему (бросаться) (‘to catch
smb’s
eyes’),
d)
в глаза2 кому-чему (говорить) (‘to say straight to smb’s face’),
e)
в глаза3 кому-чему (смотреть) (‘to face smth.’, ‘to confront smth.’),
f)
в глазах кого-чего [prop[4]] (‘in smb’s opinion’),
g)
на глаза кому-чему (попадаться, показываться) (‘to catch
smb’s
eyes’),
h)
на глазах кого-чего (‘in smb’s presence’).
In order to define
the grammaticalization degree of each unit we consider it profitable to view
the following aspects: desematization, context generalization and
decategorialization which reveals itself in the change of morphosyntactic
paradigm.
a) ГЛАЗАМИ КОГО-ЧЕГО (‘through the eyes of’)
Россия глазами иностранцев (‘Russia thought the eyes of
foreigners’). The sense of this structure is to be revealed as follows: ‘Иностранцы видят Россию следующим образом’ (‘Foreigners see
Russian the next way’), so the prepositional unit serves to express the role of
an Observer. The meaning and contexts develop generalization: реальность глазами Партии (‘the reality through the
eyes of the Party’) à *глаза Партии (*’the Party’s eyes’). It’s
eminent to note that the prepositional unit forms so called “free syntaxeme” –
a word combination with prominent meaning independent of context which can be
used separately (titles, headlines, etc.): Глазами мента (‘Through the eyes
of a cop’).
b) ГЛАЗОМ КОГО (‘with the eye of’)
Глазом художника он сразу отметил странные тени (‘Being an artist he has
noted strange shadows at once’ lit. ‘with the eye of an artist he has notes
strange shadows at once’). The unit expresses characteristics, the synonym is как (‘as’). In our opinion глазом кого (‘with the eye of’) is a potential preposition since
no signs confirming grammaticalization has been revealed.
c) В ГЛАЗА1 КОМУ-ЧЕМУ (БРОСАТЬСЯ) (‘to catch smb’s eyes’)
Беспорядок
бросился гостям в глаза (‘The mess caught the guests’ eyes’). The prepositional unit conveys the Protagonist
role: ‘Гости увидели беспорядок’ (‘The guests saw
the mess’) and forms “a determined syntaxeme” being used only within the
structure <Nnom бросается в глаза N dative/genitive>.
It serves an important communicative function – shades the Protagonist and
illuminates the Object, making the latter syntactic, or grammatical subject. В глаза1 кому-чему (бросаться) (‘to catch smb’s
eyes’) represents a highly grammaticalized item: Зарубежным фирмам бросается в глаза бюрократия (‘The bureaucracy
catches the eyes of foreign companies’) – *глаза зарубежных фирм (‘*the eyes of
foreign companies’). The propositional unit obtains a morphosyntactic paradigm
irrelevant for the noun: в глаза кому-чему (Ndative) – в глаза кого-чего (Ngenitive): Беспорядок бросился в глаза гостям (dative case) – Беспорядок бросился в глаза гостей (genitive case)
(‘The mess caught the guests’ eyes’).
d) В ГЛАЗА2 КОМУ-ЧЕМУ (ГОВОРИТЬ) (‘to say straight
to smb’s face’)
Генерал сказал правду в глаза правительству (‘The general said the truth straight to the
government’ lit. ‘to the eyes of the government’). Being used solely after
verbs of speech the prepositional unit is assumed to form “a bond syntaxeme”.
The bond syntaxemes usually are observed to be less grammaticalized and have
less generalization: сказать правду в глаза мужу (‘to say the truth
straight to the husband’s face’ lit. ‘to the husband’s eyes’) – глаза мужа (the husband’s eyes), though
some desemantization contexts are detected: в глаза правительству (‘to the eyes of the
government’) – *глаза правительства (‘*the eyes of government’). The prepositional unit
displays a morphosyntactic paradigm: в глаза кому-чему (Ndative)
– в глаза кого-чего (Ngenitive): Генерал сказал правду в глаза правительству (dative case) – Генерал сказал правду в глаза правительства (genitive case) (‘The
general said the truth straight to the government’ lit. ‘to the eyes of the
government’).
e) В ГЛАЗА3 КОМУ-ЧЕМУ (СМОТРЕТЬ) (‘to face smth.’, ‘to confront smth.’)
Нужно смотреть правде в глаза (‘One should face the truth’,
lit. ‘watch the truth’s eyes’). The construction including the prepositional
unit forms “a bonded syntaxeme” used strictly after verbs like смотреть (‘to watch’) and
so on. Unlike most bonded syntaxemes the meaning and contexts are highly
generalized: смотреть в глаза правде (lit. ‘to watch the truth’s eyes’) – *глаза правды (*’the truth’s eyes’). The
meaning of the construction (‘One should realize the truth’) has nothing in
common with the semes constituting the lexeme глаз (‘eye’). The morphosyntactic
paradigm is peculiar to the unit: в глаза кому-чему (Ndative)
– в глаза кого-чего (Ngenitive): Нужно смотреть в глаза правде (dative case) – Нужно смотреть в глаза правды (genitive case)
(‘One should face the truth’, lit. ‘watch the truth’s eyes’).
f) В ГЛАЗАХ КОГО-ЧЕГО [PROP] (‘in smb’s opinion’)
В глазах матери Вася еще дитя (‘In his mother’s opinion
Vasya is still a baby’). The prepositional unit obtains the same meaning
indicating an Observer as (а) глазами кого-чего (‘through the eyes of’) but
its syntactic behavior restrains us to assume them synonyms. The point is that
(f) в глазах кого-чего
[prop] (‘in smb’s opinion’) requires 2 propositions, forming therefore “a
determined syntaxeme” – the item with the meaning clarified only in definite
construction. The first obligatory proposition indicates the Observer: Мама считает (‘The mother considers’) and
the second one expresses characteristics: Вася еще дитя (‘Vasya is still a
baby’). On the contrary the second proposition is never attached within one
sentence to (a) глазами кого-чего (‘through the eyes
of’). The preposition tends to be highly grammaticalized: в глазах общественности (‘in public
opinion’, lit. ‘in the eyes of community’)
– *глаза общественности (*’the eyes of community’).
g) НА ГЛАЗА КОМУ-ЧЕМУ (ПОПАДАТЬСЯ, ПОКАЗЫВАТЬСЯ) (‘to catch
smb’s
eyes’)
The unit forms “a
determined syntaxeme” and appears within 2 structures: (1) Эта газета случайно попалась на глаза жене (‘My wife saw the newspaper by accident’ lit. ‘The
newspaper caught my wife’s eyes accidentally’); (2) Он не хочет показываться на глаза боссу (‘He doesn’t want to be seen by
the boss’ lit. ‘He doesn’t want to show up in the boss’s eyes’). No
grammaticalization traces has been found for the unit except for
morphosyntactic paradigm: на глаза кому-чему (Ndative) – на глаза кого-чего (Ngenitive): (1) Эта газета случайно попалась на глаза жене (dative case) / жены (genitive case)
(‘My wife saw the newspaper by accident’ lit. ‘The newspaper caught my wife’s
eyes accidentally’); (2) Он не хочет показываться на глаза боссу (dative case) / босса (genitive case) (‘He doesn’t want to be seen by the
boss’ lit. ‘He doesn’t want to show up in the boss’s eyes’).
h) НА ГЛАЗАХ КОГО-ЧЕГО (‘in smb’s
presence’)
Это происходит на глазах всего мира (‘This is witnessed by the
whole world’ lit. ‘It is happening on the eyes of the whole world’). The unit
functionally serves for the Observer role: Весь мир видит это (‘The whole world
witnesses it’) and is assumed to be highly grammaticalized (desematicization
and context generalization): на глазах всего мира (lit. ‘on the eyes of the
whole world’) – *глаза всего мира (‘*the eyes of the whole
world’), constituting moreover a morphosyntactic paradigm: на глазах кого-чего – на глазах у кого-чего: Это происходит на глазах всего мира – Это происходит на глазах у всего мира (‘This is witnessed
by the whole world’ lit. ‘It is happening on the eyes of the whole world’).
The summarized data
for the discussed prepositional units are presented in the table 1.
Table 1. Prepositional units including lexeme глаз
‘eye’ and their grammaticalization features
|
Prepositional
unit
|
Translation
|
Desemantization
and context generalization level
|
Syntaxeme type
|
Morpho-
syntactic
paradigm
|
a
|
глазами
кого-чего
|
through the eyes of
|
high
|
free
|
-
|
b
|
глазом
кого
|
with the eye of
|
low
|
bonded
|
-
|
c
|
в
глаза1 кому-чему что (бросается и под.)
|
to catch smb’s eyes
|
high
|
determined
|
+
|
d
|
в
глаза2 кому-чему (говорить)
|
to say straight to smb’s
face
|
low
|
bonded
|
+
|
e
|
в
глаза3 кому-чему (смотреть)
|
to face smth.
|
high
|
bonded
|
+
|
f
|
в
глазах кого-чего [prop]
|
in smb’s opinion
|
high
|
determined
|
-
|
g
|
на
глаза кому-чему (попасться, показаться)
|
to catch
smb’s eyes
|
low
|
determined
|
+
|
h
|
на
глазах кого-чего
|
in smb’s presence
|
high
|
free
|
-
|
On the basis of table 1 we can design agrammaticalization scale for the prepositional units
including lexeme глаз ‘eye’ (Fig. 1.).
A
grammaticalization scale
Thus, we suppose
that the prepositional units (a) глазами кого-чего ‘through the eyes of smb.’, (h) на глазах кого-чего ‘in smb’s
presence’, (c) в глаза1 кому-чему что (бросается и под.) ‘to catch smb’s eyes’, (f) в глазах кого-чего [prop] ‘in smb’s opinion’ have completed their
grammaticalization and become prepositions. We suggest them to be worthy of
having a separate articles in the dictionaries taking into consideration their
only possible interpretation within prepositional construction. The
prepositional unit (e) в глаза3 кому-чему (смотреть) ‘to face smth’ is on its way to prepositions and (d) в глаза2 кому-чему (говорить) ‘to say straight to smb’s face’, (g) на глаза кому-чему (попасться, показаться) ‘to catch smb’s eyes’, (b) глазом кого ‘with the eye of smb’ have just started the
grammaticalization and still are settled within the noun field.
Here we summarize
our conclusions with regard to its theoretical and practical implications.
First of all, it has been pointed out that grammaticalization process is very
active in Russian within prepositional system. We expect to find the same
process in other semantic groups especially in the ones of somatic nouns. The
conclusion can be transferred to Russian prepositions as a category – it is
assumed to be a very rapidly replenished class. Second, on the basis of one
grammaticalization path discussed in the paper we can identify the
grammaticalization channels peculiar to prepositional unit and enlighten the
active process in the sphere which is very significant for drawing attention to
the considerable changes in Russian prepositions as a category. Third, our
study has identified the grammaticalization level of 8 prepositional units in
Russian language which allowed us to construct a grammaticalization scale for
these units. It offers a great potential for analysis and synthesis of the
items in question. The material of the paper thus has implications for Russian
language as foreign studying, machine translation and lexicography practice.
As far as our future
research concerns we should mention the following tasks: a) a thorough study and description of Russian
prepositional units, particularly the ones including somatic nouns; b) determination of their grammaticalization level in
view of proper lexicographic interpretation; c) revealing and providing extra reliable means for
distinguishing the grammaticalization stages.
[1] The last grammaticalization
mechanism – erosion (or "phonetic reduction" – loss in phonetic
substance) has not yet been revealed for Russian prepositions.
[2] V. Podlesskaya
and E. Rakhilina remind us that the most widely spread
model of space orientation is a human body part model: an object is identified
by its place and form to human body, then it is oriented similarly to human
body orientation. It is significant that different languages prefer for these
purposes different parts of body [Подлесская, Рахилина 2000].
[3] And other Slavic languages as well,
see e. g. [Конюшкевич 2010; Виноградова, Чекалина 2013]. [4] [prop] – proposition..
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Статтю присвячено вивченню
процесу граматикалізації у прийменниковій системі російської мови.
Особливу увагу приділено реконструкції шляхів граматикалізації «іменникà прийменник» (на прикладі прийменникової одиниці лицом к лицу с
кем-чем) і побудові шкали граматикалізації для 8 прийменникових одиниць, що містять
соматизм глаз, за ступенем їх граматикалізації.
Ключові слова: граматикалізація, шлях граматикалізації, шкала граматикалізації, російський прийменник, прийменникова одиниця, соматизм.
Available 27 September 2013.
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