Article.
Любов Гунько
УДК
378.147=111:81(510)(045)
THE PERIODIZATION OF THE
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT
OF APPLIED LINGUISTICS IN CHINA TILL 1977
У статті описано розвиток
мовної ситуації у Китаї, висвітлено головні мовні прикладні задачі. Розглянуто
історичний розвиток прикладної лінгвістики у Китаї та виділено головні періоди,
які виділяють китайські провідні лінгвісти. На основі опрацьованого
теоретичного матеріалу надано авторську періодизацію історичного розвитку
прикладної лінгвістики як самостійної науки у Китаї до 1977 року.
Ключові слова: Китай;
професійна підготовка; приладна лінгвістика; мовні реформи; головні задачі
прикладних мовних досліджень; історичний розвиток китайської прикладної
лінгвістики.
Introduction. One of the most popular researches today is the development comparably
new subject in scientific area – Applied Linguistics. The Chinese educational
system is developing rapidly and the positive changes of its high education are
valuable for improvement of the teaching methods, plans and forms in high
education of our country. The comprehensive study of the issue demands a retrospective approach in
the analysing of the current state of Applied Linguistics in China.
The aims of the study to represent the historical view of
the Chinese studies on Applied Linguistics; to show our own historical
periodization of the science development from 5 B. C. till 1977; to distinguish
the main tasks of the studies on applied language at that time; to describe the
main factors that influenced the development of Applied Linguistics as an
independent science in China.
The theoretical framework and the
research methods.
General
questions of Applied Linguistics were researched in the works of the scientists
from different countries. The historical analysis of the development of the
Applied Linguistics as independent science was researched in the works of:
Zavialova O., Kaplunova M., Leninceva V., Semenas A., Bolton K., Lam A. S. L.,
Na Liu, Norman J., Chen Changlai (栋昌来), Feng Zhiwei (冯志伟), Gui Shichun (桂诗春), Liu Yanchun (刘艳春), Shi Linping (石林平), Yu Genyuan (于根元), Wen Qiufang (文秋芳) Zhang Yan (张艳) and others.
For solving tasks we set in the
study we used such research methods
as: the general scientific method which helped us to analyze foreign and
domestic sources and synthesized the results; the
analysis of the documentation, what was useful for the studying of the main
laws and acts of regulation of the language situation in the PRC; the
comparative-historical method for the revealing of regularities and tendencies
of the development of Applied Linguistics in China.
Results.
The People Republic of China is the country with population of more than
1. 3 billion people, its territory covers about 9. 6 million square meters.
From the time of the initiation of economic reforms
and the Opening-up Policy from 1978 China has become one of the world’s leaders
in economic growth with it’s average GDP per capita from 7 – 8% per year during
last decades. China has become the second economy in the world according total
nominal GDP (World Bank, 2015).
China is now one of the most influential economies
in the world, yet relatively little known in other countries about the language
situation in China. Depiction of the events that influenced the development of
the language situation and reforms that was held in China is one of the
integral parts of our research, which is devoted to the study “Professional
training of masters of foreign language and Applied Linguistics in higher
education establishments of China”.
There are 56 nationalities in China:
according to census data in 2010. The Han nationality (1. 3 billion people)
accounts 91. 6% of the general Chinese population, at the same time the part of
minorities (0. 1 billion people) is 8. 4%. The total number of languages used
in the country according to different data varies from 80 to 300, among them 33
are written languages. According to Chinese classification
(Guo yuyan ditu ji, 2012) all languages are divided into Sino-Tibetan (Chinese, Tibetan, Nu
language, Bai language, etc.), Altaic (Mongolian, Turkic, Manchu-Tungus),
Austronesian (Amis, Bunun language, Paiwan), South Asian (language Wa, De’ang
language) and Indo-European (Russian, Tajik). Chinese includes hundreds of
totally different local dialects, subdialects, speeches and language variants.
According to the classification given in the Language Atlas of China, the
Chinese language includes 10 main dialects, sometimes are selected only 7 and
the last 3 are selected as subdialects: Guanhua/north dialects (官话), Wu (吴语), Min (闽语), Guandong / Cantonese (粤语), Xiang (湘语), Gan (赣语), Hakka (客家话), Anhui (徽语), Ping (平话) and Jin (晋语) (Guo yuyan ditu ji, 2012).
Due to the sheer amount of dialects in the country, we can conclude that this
the main reason for the official language policy formation, namely
implementation of “Standard Mandarin/Putonghua” (普通话), which is based on Beijing dialect that belongs to the northern group
of dialects in the Chinese language (Na Liu, 2010; Kaplunova, 2017; Leninceva, 2016).
At the same time like spreading Putonghua became one of the main tasks
of the Chinese language policy, the number of related issues arose. These are
some of them: finding a compromise between the official state language and
dialects on the territory of the country; elimination of illiteracy of the
population; proliferation of simplification of hieroglyphics and popularization
of the official system of the Chinese language Romanization – Hanyu pinyin (汉语拼音), which greatly facilitated the studying of Putonghua.
Since the middle of 1980s, much effort has been spent on developing an
exam for native speakers –Putonghua Proficiency Test (普通话水平考试/PSC) which began to be taken in China in 1994 and was officially
approved in 1997. Another exam was previously developed in 1988 – The Chinese
Proficiency Test of China (汉语水平考试 / HSK) – for non-native speakers.
Today HSK is globally recognized as the test standard for Chinese as a foreign
language (Bolton K,
2003; Na Liu, 2010; Zavialova, 2009; Kaplunova, 2017).
For today, the significant resources
of knowledge about the Chinese language policy are analytical reports about the
linguistic situation in China (《中国语言生活状况》) from the National Language Working
Committee (国家语言文字工作委员会), which is under direct leadership
of the Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China. These reports
monitor the language policy of the country in spheres such as education,
publications, media, television, and the Internet. Reports have been published
since 2005 and contain the detailed study of the most important linguistic
issues, relevant to the language statistics data, laws and other valued
material of the People's Republic of China.
Today's main tasks of applied
language researches are:
1) Work on the standardizing of the
pronunciation in Putunhua; researches about the tones of words; completing the
list of words with a neutral tone and erized final (儿化音).
2) Implementation of “Written Norms
of Foreign Language Translation in the Field of Public Service”
3) Completion of the writing rules
of the transcription (using Pinyin) of the Chinese names; using digits and
punctuation marks; release of the standard of the national language and other
development of the standards in China.
4) Completion of the work on the
international coding of Chinese characters 甲骨文– oracle bone inscriptions – inscriptions on the bones or tortoise’s
shells of the Shang Dynasty (16th – 11thcentury B.C.), as well as the ancient
hieroglyphic handwriting 小篆古.
5) Work on the publication “Green
book of the existence of the Chinese language” (《中国语言生活绿皮书》).
6) Publication of the “Sample forms
of running-hand script characters” (《手写行楷字形规范》)
etc. (Zhongguo yuyan shenghuo zhuangkuang baogao, 2017).
The study of the professional
training of Applied Linguists in China is not limited with analyzing its
current situation, but it needs a retrospective approach – identification of
objective socio-economic and political factors which influence the formation
and development of Applied Linguistics as an independent science in China.
According to our reconnaissance, the establishment and development of Applied
Linguistics in China has deep historical roots. Moreover, the reform of the
system of vocational training on the specialty “Foreign Language and Applied
Linguistics” is also due to the development of Applied Linguistics as a science
at various stages.
An analysis of psychological and pedagogical works has shown that
Chinese researchers do not have a unified approach about distinguishing the
main periods of the formation and development of Applied Linguistics in China.
One of the first linguists in China Gui Shichun (桂诗春) subdivides the historical development of Applied Linguistics as
follows: 1) The first period – 40-s of the 19th century. The years
when the term “Applied Linguistics” is introduced into use, when a faculty of
the English language appeares at Michigan University, the years when the first
linguistic journal “Journal of Applied Linguistics” in America was established.
2) The second period – 60-s of the 19th century – the period of the
development of Applied Linguistics. This period is divided into: the first
stage before the Second World War: the time of “requirements of reality” (实际的需要); the second stage – late 50's: so-called time of “development of
linguistics” (语言学本身的发展); the third stage – the middle of
60-s: the period of “the development of language teaching” (教育的发展); the fourth stage – the end of 60-s: the time of “the formation of
Applied Linguistics” (应用语言学本身的成熟). 3) The third period – from 1964
when the Applied Linguistics was in the active process of its development. 4)
The fourth period – from 1978, the time of the development of Applied
Linguistics in China (Gui Shichun, 1988: 11 –13).
It is interesting to analyze the research of another famous Chinese
linguist Feng Zhiwei (冯志伟). In his book “General description
of Applied Linguistics” («应用语言学综论») he gives another periodization of
the historical development of applied linguistics in China: 1) from Spring and
Autumn period (770 – 476 years B. С.) and Warring States Period (476 – 221
years B. C.); 2) 50 – 60-s of the 20th century –conception; 3) 70 –
80-s of the 20th century – active development, 80-s – official
researches on Applied Linguistics as independent scientific brunch in China; 4)
90-s – foundation of the first journal on Applied Linguistics, holding the
first Chinese scientific conferences in this field
(Feng Zhiwei, 1999: 21 – 26).
Leading linguist in China Yu Genyuan (于根元) offers 4 periods of the development of the Applied Linguistics in
China in 20th century. His periodization mainly connected with the
main events in the evolution of the country: 1) at the junction of the 19th
and 20th centuries (1894 – 1912); 2) from the beginning of the 20th
century to the proclamation of the People's Republic of China (1912 – 1949); 3)
from the proclamation of the PRC to the beginning of “the reform and opening-up
policy” (改革开放) (1949 – 1978); 4) from “the reform and opening-up
policy” till 21st century (1978 – till today) (Yu Genyuan, 1998:
12 – 16).
Wen Qiufang (文秋芳) fallows to the periodization of
Shu Dingfang (束定芳) and Hua Weifen (华维芬), namely the distribution of the historical development for decades,
so: 1) the first period – conception (引进阶段)
from 1978 till 1987; 2) the second period – development (提高阶段) from 1988 till 1997; 3) the third period – innovations (发展创新阶段) from 1998 till 2007 (Sun Fengguo, 2016: 8).
In the context of our study, we also focus on periodization of the
famous researcher Chen Changlai (栋昌来): 1) initial period (萌芽时期) – from the Shang – Zhou Dynasties (15 – 3 century B. C. ) till Spring
and Autumn period (770 – 476 B. C.) and Warring States Period (476 – 221 B.
C.); 2) traditional period (传统时期) – from Qin (221 – 207 B. C.) and
Han Dynasties (206 B. C. – 220 A. D.) till the last years of Qing Dynasty (the
beginning of the 20th century); 3) period of reconstruction (变革时期) – from the beginning of the 20th century ; 4) the period of
experimental reforms (改革实验时期) – after 1949; 5) the period of
development of mentality (繁荣发展和思考) – after 1978 (Qi Huyang&Chen Changlai, 2004: 7 – 12).
Worth paying attention periodization of Liu Yanchun (刘艳春), which has only two periods of development of Applied linguistics as
independent science: 1) starting period (起步阶段)
(1984 ～ 1998) and 2) period of development (发展阶段) (from 1999 till now) (Liu Yanchun, 2010: 98 –
101).
After we have analyzed the works of leading Chinese scientists about
historical development of Applied Linguistics, we believe it is ground-breaking
to bring our vision of the periodization of the establishment and development
of Applied Linguistics in China.
According to our periodization the first
period began from the 5th century B. C. and the beginning
coincided with the date when the first sources, in which the question of
language appeared. It can be affirmed that Applied Linguistic issues were part
of Chinese experience long before the term 《应用语言学》 (yingyongyuyanxue) – “Applied Linguistics” came into use.
The first period is the time when the scientists of that time actively
extended their knowledge in the field of linguistics, when the research or
compilation of dictionaries conducted not to the field of scientific research,
but because of the society's needs for this information. The Chinese sources of
the language studying became important things in the development of Applied
Linguistics. The applied nature of ancient linguistics showed first in the
interest to the interpretation of words in ancient texts from the 5th
century B. C., concepts and connections between the word and its meaning were
formed; in the 3rd century B. C. the theories of the “names’
correction” appeared, that was the correct selection of the name, which would
correspond to the essence of the meaning of the word. Thus, Confucius (孔子) made a significant contribution to the development of Applied
Linguistics when he stressed indissoluble, that was, natural, connection of
names with things and affirmed that the correction of the names should be the
first necessary step in the management of the country. His theory of the
“names’ correction” was taken at the school of legists. But the philosophers of
the Daoism, by contrast, talked about the random connection between the word
and the things. Xun Kuang (荀况) synthesized both approaches (the 3rd
century B. C.) (Yun Xiao 2011; Zavialova, 2009).
However,
we can talk about the formation of linguistic tradition only from the 3rd
– 2nd century B. C., when several scientists compiled the first
explanatory dictionary “Erya” (《尔雅》). There were given interpretations
of the words arranged according to the semantic groups.
Also worth of attention such first dictionaries as: “Shi Zhounian” (《十周年》) (9th – 8th century B. C., maybe even later),
there is the list of the characters for learning; “Fang Yan” (《方言》) (the 1st century B. C. – the 1st century A. D.),
where the words that were used in different cities of the Han Dynasty were
collected; “Shuowen Jiezi” (《说文解字》) by Xu Shen (许慎) (1st – 2nd century A. D.) is the first full
dictionary which contains all characters the compiler knew, with explanation of
the characters, structure and origin. This dictionary grouped character by the
main semantic element – “key” or radical. And the etymological dictionary
“Shiming” (《释名》) by Liu Xi (刘熙). Writing radical’s dictionaries according to the example of “Shuowen
Jiezi” became traditional thing. In the 3rd – 6th centuries there appeared
dictionaries of homophones, where the tones of the words were described,
rhyming dictionaries where we can found an idea of the characters’ sound at
that time (Norman, 1988; Yun Xiao, 2011).
We also would like to note such an early grounds of Applied Linguistics
in China as: creating a transcription Fang Qie (反切) – a traditional method of indicating the pronunciation of a Chinese
character by using two other Chinese characters, the first having the same
consonant as the given character and the second having the same vowel (with or
without final nasal) and tone; creating rhyming dictionaries; interpretation of
ancient literature; compiling such textbooks for children as “Three Character
Classic” (《三字经》), “The Book of Family Names” (《百家姓》), “Thousand Character Classic” (《千字文》),
the invention of such teaching methods as copying of the writing the words and
making a pair of antithetical phrases Dui Zi(对子), as well as a large number of monographs that were created over the
centuries and which are devoted to the studying of ways of the expressions of
poetry – poetic criticism and genre notation about genre “Ci” (《词》) (Feng Zhiwei,1999; Qi Huyang&Chen Changlai, 2004; Zavialova, 2009).
During next ages the development of Chinese traditions continued, but in
the same frames. New dictionaries were created and reached a huge amount. The
biggest Chinese dictionary was compiled in 10-s of the 18th century,
it contained 47 035 characters and 1 995 their variants. At the late stage from
19th century “the empty words dictionaries” – dictionaries of
particles and other language’s grammatical elements appeared.
The second period: 1870 – 1963
years. In 1870-s the prominent Polish linguist Jan Baudouin
de Courtenay (1845 – 1929) was the first who offered the definition “Applied
Linguistics”. It was the origin of Applied Linguistics as an independent
scientific discipline. After nearly a hundred years of researches and
accumulation of experience, after the end of the Second World War, after
social, scientific, cultural and educational development especially the
development of electronic technology, each language in the world has faced the
challenge of the continuous implementation of new language strategies,
stimulating of the implementation and development of such a new science as
Applied Linguistics. It is worth to note that the development of Chinese
Applied Linguistics, compared with the global development of this discipline,
was late for almost a hundred years.
But there were particular importance in the release of the grammar of
the Chinese language “Basic Principlesfor Writing Clearly and Coherently by
Mister Ma” by Ma Jianzhong (马建忠《马氏文通》) in Commercial Publishing House of
Shanghai (上海商务印书馆) in 1898. It was this manual that became the symbol
of the origin of Applied Linguistics in China (Yu Genyuan, 1998: 12).
An important feature of the first period was the transition from the
traditional study of linguistics to the modern one. In 1919 during “the
Vernacular Movement” (《白话文运动》) and “Yan'an rectification
movement” (《延安整风运动》) in 1942 – 1944 raised the relevant
issues, which were related to many important linguistic issues of that time.
These movements determined changes in the views of the Chinese intelligentsia:
the massive reorientation from traditional culture to westernization. The
movement touched all aspects of China's life: spreading spoken language Baihua
(白话), revision of the Confucian ethical standards,
criticizing traditional historiography, new requirements for education. The
main questions of the scientific researches at that time were: simplification,
not proper attention to the theoretical side of research, nor scientific
language style and excessive Europeanization in the researches.
The opening of the world's first courses on Applied Linguistics at the
University of Michigan in 1946 was an important historical date of that period.
In 1949 at the same university was founded the world's first magazine of
Applied Linguistics.
Meanwhile, a major event in the development of Applied Linguistics in
China was the publication of works of Lü Shuxiang and Zhu Dexi “Course in
stylistic grammar” (吕叔湘、朱德熙《语法修辞讲话》) in
“The People's Daily” (《人民日报》) July 6th 1951. It was
the work that gained enormous popularity and educated several generations of
linguists.
In October 1955 in Beijing was held the National Conference on Reform of
the Chinese Written Language (《全国文字改革会议》) and “Academic conference on the
standard of the modern Chinese language” (《现代汉语规范问题学术会议》), which became the symbol of the entering of Applied Linguistics in
China to a new stage of its development. Those were setting the standards and
future directions of spreading Putonghua, selected the content, methods and
main tasks about standards in modern Chinese language. Teaching Chinese
language has got significant reforms. In 1955 trial lessons were hold on the
teaching of Chinese language and literature and in 1956 this system was
introduced to the whole country (Yu Genyuan, 1998: 13).
In China at that time, we should value such a prominent sphere of early
development of Applied Linguistics as a machine translation. In 1956, a project
on machine translation was begun at the Academy of Sciences of the People's
Republic of China, mainly between Chinese and Russian languages. Later it was
changed to a multilingual translation system. Mostly at this time there was
spreading of philological knowledge, it became aware that the development of
language studies is an important part of the development of culture and state
policy.
The third period: 1964 – 1977 years. The beginning of the second stage of
the formation and development of Applied Linguistics was characterized by
reduction of the researches in this direction. As Yu Genyuan(于根元) mentioned in his work “Formation and development of
Applied Linguistics in China” (于根元《中国应用语言学的形成和发展》, 2010): “After the 60s of the 20th century, it was difficult to
carry out research and develop the industry, the time from 1966 can be called a
period of stagnation, which lasted for 10 years” (Yu Genyuan, 2010: 15).
The beginning of the third period year 1964 matches with the year when
the First International Seminar on Applied Linguistics was hold in France and
the Scientific Union for Applied Linguistics was founded. These two events can
safely be called the symbol of the formation of a scientific subject. In the
developed countries of Europe and America in 1970-s new sciences at the
junction of Linguistics and Computer science were rapidly progressing:
Processing of Linguistic Information, Computer Linguistics, Sociolinguistics,
Language Planning and the Theory of Language Teaching etc. A large number of
scientists who made significant progress in the development of these areas
appeared at that time.
In China in 1978 the publication of the articles on Applied Linguistics by young
scholars in the journal “Chinese Philology”(《中国语文》) deserves the attention.
Conclusions.
The analysis of the historical development of Applied Linguistics as an
independent science in China allowed, to find out the connection between
developing Applied Linguistics and objective socio-economic and political
factors which influence the formation and the development of Applied
Linguistics as an independent science in China. As we can see according to the
paper the main tasks of the studies on Applied language at that time were:
compilation of dictionaries; reforming Chinese language; work on the
standardizing of the pronunciation in Putunhua. The performed study does not cover all periods and
aspects of the multisided problem of historical development of Applied
Linguistics in China and requires further investigation. The prospects of our
further research are: the work with the development of Applied Linguistics up
to our days; the analysis of main thoughts and views of the Chinese scholars on
Applied Linguistics as an independent science.
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Надійшла до редакції 20 лютого 2018 року.
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