Article.
Олена Пефтієва
УДК 811.111’37(045)=111
FIGURATIVE COMPONENT
AS AN INHERENT PART OF A WORD SEMANTIC STRUCTURE
У статті
розглядається місце образного компонента як невід’ємної частини у структурі
лексичного значення слова. Оглядаються сучасні класифікації семантичних
компонентів у структурі лексичного значення слова. Простежується кореляція
образного компонента з іншими компонентами конотації. Досліджується
лексикографічна фіксація образного лексико-семантичного варіанта слова та визначаються
його специфічні риси.
Ключові
слова: семантична структура слова, образний компонент, лексичне
значення, лексико-семантичний варіант
слова
1.
Introductory remarks
The figurative component, as a
semantic universal provokes the interest of linguists since ancient times. The
focal point of this article is the figurative component, which is considered as
an integral part in the structure of the lexical meaning of a word.
A significant contribution to the
contemporary study of figurativeness was done by E. Bebchuk, L. Belekhova,
A. Blinova, M. Lebedeva, O. Peftieva, A. Yurina, where a variety
of approaches to the understanding of verbal figurativeness was presented.
Besides Jens Allwood researched meaning potential and context, variation in
meaning (Allwood). Seana Coulson and Todd Oakley examined the relationship
between literal and figurative meanings in view of mental spaces and conceptual
blending theory (Coulson and Oakley). Rachel Giora also considered literal and figurative
language (Giora).
Each word, even unfamiliar one,
provokes certain associations and a close point of view was expressed by
Kerstin Norén and Per Linell “the meaning
potential of a lexical item … is the set of properties which together with
contextual factors, including features of the linguistic co-text as well as
various situational conditions, make possible all the usages and
interpretations of the word or construction that language users find reasonably
correct, or plainly reasonable in the actual situations of use. Speakers and
listeners use the potentials of words and other expressions to mean and
understand specific things in context” (Norén and Linell 389).
However, the acquaintance with a
considerable amount of literature on this issue shows the lack of papers,
devoted to the place of figurative component in the hierarchy of a word
semantic structure and its specific features, makes this research topical. The object of the study is a
word lexical meaning. The subject is
the figurative component as an inherent part of a word semantic structure. The empiric data of the research numbers 1,567 English figurative nouns designating
a person. All lexical units were obtained by the continuous sampling from the
fifth edition of the Shorter Oxford English Dictionary on Historical Principles
(hereinafter SOED) edited by William Trumble and Angus Stevenson.
The specificity
of the object and the subject resulted in
the use of basic research methods which included: the componential analysis for studying the semes whence a figurative meaning
originates; lexicographic analysis to find out the ways of figurativeness fixation; quantitative analysis to determine the productivity of semes and dictionary labels.
2. Classifications of connotative components of a word
The semantic structure of the word
is rather complicated model consisting of certain parts, and for the time being
there is no unanimous opinion among the scholars about the ultimate
classification of its components. Commonly accepted among the linguists is the
opinion that, above all, the semantic structure is divided into lexical and
grammatical meanings. In its turn lexical meaning, which is the focal point of
this article, is subdivided into denotative (designatum) and connotative
(optional) meanings. Denotative meaning nominates the referent without the help
of a context, and reflects the same meaning for all speakers of the language.
Thus, the denotative meaning is a lexical meaning proper, which makes
communication possible. The connotative meaning is a set of all possible
general and individual associations connected with a word. It is here where the
figurative meaning is allocated.
The term connotation originates from medieval Latin connotatio(n-), from connotare
‘mark in addition’, the verb to connote means to imply or suggest an idea or
feeling in addition to the literal or primary meaning (SOED). So connotation is
understood here as a part of a lexical meaning which consists of stylistic,
emotive, evaluative, and figurative components.
The connotative aspect of the
lexical meaning is heterogeneous in its content and a variety of
classifications exists concerning the connotative components. For example, N. Mel’nychuk considers emotiveness and expressiveness as main components of connotation (Mel’nychuk). V. V. Levyts’kyi,
following L. Bloomfield, recognizes emotive, expressive, evaluative and
stylistic components as the connotative elements (Levyts’kyi). J. A. Sternin
delineates the following components of connotation: an emotional one that takes
into account the emotions and feelings expressed by the word; expressive
connotation is understood as an intensification of the word meaning; the
evaluative connotation takes into account the approving or disapproving
evaluation (Sternin).
Analyzing connotation,
V. I. Goverdovsky, in the article "History of the concept of
connotation (in linguistics)", highlights the three types of its
direction: a) the expressive-evaluative; b) the context type; c) the
historical-cultural type (Goverdovsky). As a result, different set of
components is given even in the works whose authors adhere to a similar
understanding of this phenomenon.
Ginzburg R. Z., Khidekel S. S., Knyazeva G. Y., Sankin A. A. in their book A Course in Modern English Lexicology distinguish only two connotative
components: “the emotive charge and the stylistic value of the word” (Ginzburg
20). Buldakov V. A.,
who researched connotation in categorimatic lexis and phraseological units of modern German language, states “According to the formal criterion, that is, by the
method of expression, two types of connotation are distinguished: a) a
formal-substantial phonetic and semantic in the broad
sense, a morpho-semantic one; and
b) a derivational-semantic (metaphorical, metonymic, phraseosemantic)
connotation” (Buldakov).
Thus, classifications of connotative
components differ from one linguist to another, they are diverse in
terminological apparatus, and there is no exhaustive list of them. The
connotation model of I.V. Arnold is the most commonly used in modern
linguistics. Arnold I. V. in her seminal work “The English Word” (1986) proposes
four main types of connotations, which are stylistic, emotional, evaluative,
and expressive or intensifying (Arnold 48).
However, in spite of the presence of
expressive component in a lot of classifications, this fact may be challenged.
It may be argued, that emotive and expressive components are one and the same
thing, the only difference between them is in the degree of the emotion
intensity, which the word expresses, but still it is emotive component. The
intensification of noun meaning is usually achieved with the help of emphatic
constructions, like in the following example, What a bear he is, or intensifiers and other additional
words, can be of help also: C. Marlowe A
night growne mushrump, Such a one as my Lord of Cornewall is. S. Brett He was of those showbiz mushrooms who spring
up overnight (SOED). In conclusion, expressiveness is perceived
contextually. Besides, Arnold I. V. herself gives similar examples of
expressiveness, for instance, beastly
weather or beastly cold (Arnold
49).
Summing up the aforementioned it
should be reiterated, that four connotative components in this work are
recognized, namely, stylistic, evaluative, emotive, and figurative. Stylistic
component is an invariable part of a word, since each word belongs to a certain
sphere of communication. Evaluative (expressing approval or disapproval), emotive (expressing
feelings and emotions), and figurative components may be available in a word
and may not, so they are considered as variable or optional.
2.1. Figurative component of connotation
The figurative meaning of a word is
interpreted in various ways by different linguists. In this article verbal figurativeness is understood
as the expression of one object by means of another, which do not belong to the same class, furthermore these two objects
are not identical but real or imaginative associations are found between them.
The analysis of the literature on the
figurativeness status testifies to the existence of figurative component, which can be interpreted as a separate part in the word lexical meaning, according to the number of linguists (E. Bebchuk, L. Belekhova,
O. Blinova, V. Buldakov, M. Lebedeva, O.
Peftieva, E. Yurina, etc.).
When figurativeness is singled out as a separate
component of a word meaning, there is a problem in defining its specific features and determining its location in the hierarchy of the semantic word
structure.
2.1.1. Specific features of figurative component
2.1.1.1. First, the figurative
component is rooted in a certain seme (the smallest meaningful unit of a word
meaning) of the denotative meaning and this seme serves as a source for the
coinage of a figurative lexico-semantic variant (hereinafter LSV) of a word.
Figurative component is predominantly based on a potential seme (78%), e.g.:
(1) tabby – 1) a kind of silk taffeta, formerly striped, later with a uniform waved or watered finish; 2) an elderly spinster (SOED).
As can be seen from the example, the
figurative meaning of the figurative LSV of the word is based on the potential
(i.e. it is not present) seme of the denotative meaning (1) ‘a fabric that was usually worn by elderly
unmarried women’.
(2) Greek - 1) a native or inhabitant of Greece; 2) a
cunning or wily person (SOED).
In the example above, the potential semes cunning or wily of denotative meaning contain
ethnic stereotypes and it
is resulted in a figurative LSV.
A differential seme (20%) is not so
productive as potential, e.g.:
(3) giant 1. an imaginary or mythical being of human form but superhuman
size 2. an abnormally or extremely tall or large person, animal, or plant
R. Dahl Their… father, an amiable giant nearly seven foot tall (SOED).
As is shown in the example,
figurative component is based on the differential seme superhuman size of the denotative meaning (1) and it serves as a
source for the figurative LSV (2) which denominates a person as an extremely tall or large. It is of
significance to note that figurative LSV contains stylistic (conversational
layer of the vocabulary), evaluative (good), and emotive components, the latter
may express a feeling of admiration, enchantment or surprise. Usually
figurative designation of a person expresses an emotional state of a speaker
and subjective attitude to another person.
And only 2% of nuclear semes give
the ground to a figurative meaning, e.g.:
(4) date
– 1) the day of the month; 2) term of life or existence; 3) the period to which something old belongs; 4) the limit or end of a period of time; 5) an appointment or engagement at a particular time (esp. with a person of the opposite sex) // colloq. the person with whom such an appointment is made (SOED).
The nuclear seme of the fifth LSV
appointment or engagement serves as the source for figurative nomination of a
person, but this nomination is devoid of freshness and brightness, a memorable
image is not created.
2.1.1.2. Second, the figurative
component is a transitional element between semantic structure of a word and
its semantic paradigm (a set of LSV of a word), e.g.:
(5) snake 1) a reptile characterized by elongated cylindrical limbless body, tapering tail, and smooth scaly skin, and including many kinds whose bite is venomous 2) fig. a treacherous or deceitful person; аlso, a despicable or contemptible person (SOED).
The word denotative meaning (1)
contains only stylistic reference (neutral
vocabulary). But English community associates this reptile with treachery
and deception because it can ambush and attack you with a venomous bite. These
associations, being elusive in the denotative meaning (based on potential
seme), become apparent in a figurative LSV (2). Thus an ephemeral figurative
component of a denotative meaning is transferred into a tangible figurative LSV.
As a result, it may be presupposed that a figurative component serves as a
stepping stone between semantic structure of a word and its semantic
paradigm.
2.1.1.3. Third, the figurative LSV
of a word is characterized by four cognitive parameters.
The first parameter is the semantic duality found in a common seme
of a word denotative meaning, e.g.:
(6) songbird – 1. a bird having a musical song; 2. transf. a superb singer (SOED).
The differential seme song is common for literal (1) and
figurative (2) meanings.
The psycho-linguistic (synonyms: subjective, anthropocentric) parameter is based on the personal
experience, interpreting or regarding the
designated person in terms of his own values, e.g.:
(7) tomtit – a popular name
for a number of small songbirds // transf. a little man
(SOED).
The parameter of addressability to the second or third person
determines the productivity of figurativeness as a means of person
characterization. Figurative nomination is addressed to the interlocutor as an
expression of speaker’s own emotional state and desire to describe somebody in
a certain way, e.g.:
(8) mushroom – any fungus having a fleshy fruiting body,
regarded as the type of rapid growth // fig:
a person who has suddenly sprung into notice; an upstart (SOED). The ability of the mushroom to
appear quickly, to be discovered in the morning where it was not yesterday, is
associated with undeserved glory or popularity of a person and expresses
speaker’s annoyance.
An axiological
parameter is based
upon universal values from the low vulgar nominations to subtle poetic ones,
e.g.:
(9) scum – a layer of dirt, froth, impurities, forming on the surface of a liquid, esp. in boiling or fermentation // a worthless despicable person (SOED).
(10) kingfish 1) a fish notable for its size, appearance; 2) slang. a leader, a boss (SOED).
(11) dove – a pigeon // іn Christian symbolism typifying gentleness and harmlessness // a person, esp. a woman, for whom one feels tender affection (SOED).
As is seen from the examples, figurative
nomination ranges from a low status of a person (9) up to a high one (10),
and up to a poetic (11).
The compression parameter is based on the usage of a word instead of a descriptive phrase. The
thrift law works in a language to express much with minimum words and at the
same time to create a vivid image, e.g.:
(12) brain – 1) an organ of soft nervous tissue contained
in the skull of vertebrates, functioning as the coordinating centre of
sensation and intellectual and nervous activity 2) a clever person. C.
Kingsley The accomplished Mysseri … was
in fact the brain of our corps (SOED).
As is shown in the example, the
figurative LSV reflects the characteristic feature of a clever person and tells
much with minimum of linguistic units.
Thus figurative component is as an
inherent element of a word lexical meaning. It is predominantly based on a
potential seme of a denotative meaning. Figurative component serves as a
stepping stone between denotative meaning and a figurative LSV, which expresses
speaker’s emotions and subjective attitude to another person. Figurative LSV is
characterized by parameter of
addressability, semantic duality, psycho-linguistic,
axiological, and parameter of compression.
2.1.1.4. Fourth, figurative LSV of a
word may be fixed and may not in lexicographic sources.
To select figurative nouns
designating a person the following set of criteria was established. The first
is an invariable marker which denote a person (a person of, a person who, a person like, a
person with, adjective+person, woman, girl, man, etc.); the second is a common seme (potential, differential, nuclear) of
original and figurative LSV of a word; the third is a label explicitly
indicating figurativeness (fig., transf.);
the fourth is a label implicitly indicating figurativeness (colloq., contempt., derog., iron., joc., slang). As far as it is possible
to judge, the transf. label marks metonymic transference (see example 6, 15); the
fig. label – metaphorical (see
example 5, 14).
The LSV of a word is fixed with the
help of such dictionary labels as figurative,
transferred, transferred and figurative, literal and figurative; colloquial,
contemptuous, derogatory, dialectical, ironical, jocular, slang, depreciating, offensive, abusive, endearment, poetic.
The lexicographic analysis of
English nouns designating a person shows that the figurative LSV is represented
implicitly and explicitly in the dictionary. Figurative nouns without a label
(53%) are usually trite or hackneyed stylistic devices. The presence of labels (47%)
in a dictionary entry may be interpreted by a subjective opinion of
lexicographers who perceive this figurative LSV as a fresh and image-provoking.
The quantitative analysis shows that figurative LSV may be presented in a word
paradigm with or without labels (see the table 1).
Table 1
Lexicographic fixation of figurative lexico-semantic variant of a word
Label availability
|
Quantity
|
%
|
Label absence
|
825
|
53
|
Label availability
|
742
|
47
|
Total
|
1567
|
100
|
It should be noted that figurative
LSV in many cases is accompanied with several labels. Therefore the
lexicographers reflect the tight interrelation of the figurative component with
other connotative components. The calculations have been done taking into
account the first label as the most crucial. The emergence of figurative nouns
in the course of communication and their usage with the following fixation in
the lexicographic sources reflects the continuity of the semantic derivation
process.
2.2. Correlation of figurative and other connotative components
2.2.1. Figurative and emotive
components of connotation
The words
with the emotive component convey the speaker’s feelings and emotions. Anger, fear love, hatred, joy, grief, shame, pride
and various shades of these emotions can be closely associated with strong
excitement and belong to the class of emotionally coloured lexis, which is usually
figurative, e.g.:
(13) аpe – an
animal of the monkey tribe: the generic name before “monkey” // an apelike
person; a fool. аlso as a term of abuse (SOED).
When a speaker uses the word ape in figurative
meaning he expresses his desire to
reduce the social significance of a designated person and
thereby to increase his own; speaker demonstrates his contemptuous attitude to another person. That’s why
figurative noun is perceived as a unity of figurativeness and emotiveness. Here
we share the opinion with V. I. Karasik who states that if a speaker
gives a negative evaluation to another person, this way he concurrently increases his own significance and importance
(Karasik).
On the whole the system of
figurative meanings is focused on the emotional reflection of real world
phenomena. Any figurative transference tends to hyperbolize, to express a
higher degree of emotional manifestation of the speaker.
2.2.2. Figurative and evaluative components of connotation
Figurativeness closely interacts
with evaluative
component, which expresses approval or disapproval, thus figurative nouns designating a person
serve as a specific kind of assessment in various manifestations. The social
cause of this phenomenon is undeniable; it is a constant need for the
evaluation and individualization of a person. Language facts indicate that it
is the evaluation which is a leading feature in a figurative meaning, e.g.:
(14) peach – the round sweet juicy stone-fruit of the peach tree // fig. a
person of exceptional value or quality; A particularly suitable or desirable
person (SOED).
In the mentioned example, the
differential semes sweet and juicy, which are in a close association
with a treat, enjoyment, delight, and pleasure, give the basis for the
formation of a figurative meaning where evaluation prevail. Working together
figurativeness and evaluation provide a positive effect upon a listener giving
him the opportunity to conceptualize the image of a pleasant person. The quantitative characteristics of figurative nouns in terms of
evaluation is shown in the table 2.
Table 2
Evaluation types of figurative nouns designating a person
Type of evaluation
|
Quantity
|
%
|
negative
evaluation
|
683
|
44
|
positive
evaluation
|
194
|
12
|
zero evaluation
|
690
|
44
|
Total number
|
1567
|
100
|
The result of quantitative analysis
demonstrates that the number of the figurative nouns containing evaluation
(56%) exceeds the noun group with zero evaluation (44%).
(15) tarpaulin – a waterproof protective covering // transf. а sailor (SOED).
As can be seen from the
example, both the
first LSV and the figurative one belong to the neutral layer of vocabulary.
There are only 194 nouns with a positive evaluation (see the example 11, 12, 14). The analysis also shows that quantity of
nouns with negative evaluation prevails (see the example 2, 5, 8, 9, 13). It can be explained by the
perception of positive person’s qualities as a norm, but a deviation from it
leads to denunciation which is expressed with figurative LSV.
The analysis of nouns shows, that the
combination of figurative and evaluative components leads to a far and away
vivid figurativeness.
2.2.3. Figurative and stylistic
components of connotation
Any figurative word is in
possession of essential stylistic connotation, which is observed in different
kinds of labels accompanied the word. Since each word is used in a certain type
of communication, it acquires literary, neutral, or conversational colouring. Stylistically neutral words have
adherent or occasional stylistic connotations acquired in a certain context.
The inseparability of stylistic and
figurative components is illustrated by the following example:
(16)
blister – a thin vesicle on the skin filled with serum caused by friction, a burn, or disease // an offensive or troublesome person; a worthless fellow. slang (SOED).
As observation of the researched
data shows that there is no
sharp demarcation line between semantic components of a word.
2.2.4. Semantic structure of a word The aforementioned information gives the
opportunity to infer that the semantic structure of a word meaning includes
first of all lexical and grammatical meaning; second, lexical meaning is
divided into denotative and connotative meanings; the latter in its turn
subdivided into stylistic, evaluative, emotive and figurative meanings. The
semantic structure of a word meaning is offered in the scheme 1. Scheme 1 Semantic structure of a word meaning
3.
Conclusion Summing up the information, it
should be emphasized that the figurative component is considered among the word
connotative meaning along with stylistic, emotive and evaluative constituents.
Figurative component is a transitional element between semantic structure of a
word and a semantic paradigm of a word. Figurative component, based on a
potential, differential and nuclear semes of the denotative meaning, differs
from other connotative elements in the ability to be resulted in a new LSV of a
word, which expresses speaker’s subjective opinion, his emotional state, and
his attitude to another person. The figurative LSV incorporates
other connotative constituents and characterized by five cognitive parameters.
The emergence of a figurative nomination, as one of
the most important ways of semantic derivation and its passage into the active
vocabulary, reflects the continuity of a person’s cognitive activity.
References.
Література
Алтицева 2003: Алтицева, Л.Ю. Функціонально-семантичні параметри іменників з неповною числовою
парадигмою : автореф. … канд. філол. наук [Текст] / Л. Ю. Алтицева /
Національний педагогічний університет імені М.П. Драгоманова. – К., 2003. –
20 с.
...
Gawelko 1985: Gawelko, M. Semantyczne
aspekty pluralizacji w języku franzuskim i polskim [Text] // Języki obce w
szkole. – 1985. – № 29. – S. 195-200.
Установлены
основные / неосновные функции форм числа существительных, охарактеризированы
закономерности расширения функционального диапазона форм множественного
числа, обусловленных особенностями идентификации данных форм и одномоментной
реализации такими формами тенденций идеации → ментализации → идентификации.
Обнаружен более широкий диапазон форм множественного числа вследствие
поглощения ими препозитивных форм двойственного, тройственного числа и их
функций.
Ключевые
слова: морфологическая категория, единственное число, множественное число,
идеация, ментализация, идентификация.
The
basic / non-basic functions of substantive number forms have been set, the
patterns of expansion of the functional range of plurals have been
characterized, due to the identificative peculiarities of these forms and
some one-stage implementation with such types of tendency of ideation →
mentalization → identification. A wider range of plurals through
they absorb the prepositive forms of dual, trial number and their functions has been revealed.
Keywords:
morphological category, singular, plural, ideation, mentalization,
identification.
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