Article.
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811.161.1’38
METONYMY AS A SEMANTIC MECHANISM OF THE LANGUAGE GAME IN S. DOVLATOV’S
WORKS
У статті
наводиться аналіз такого семантичного механізму створення мовної гри, як
метонімія у творчості Сергія Довлатова. Виявлено характерні типи та моделі
метонімічних переносів для раннього та зрілого періодів творчості Сергія
Довлатова. Визначено основні функції метонімії в оповіданнях і творах кожного
періоду.
Ключові
слова: мовна гра, семантичний механізм, метонімія, комічний ефект, іронія,
ідіостиль.
S. Dovlatov is one of
the most liberated writers who is free from social conventions in his creative
works. The use of language game is considered to be
the dominant feature of S. Dovlatov’s individual style.
In the article, the
language game is determined within the framework of the semiotic approach. So,
if the language game is based on the play upon the meaning of signs, we define
this phenomenon as the semantic language game. Another type of the language
game is a syntactic one, which is based on the play upon the correlation
between the signs in the speech chain (Alexandrova 27). The main role is
assigned to the syntactic form, however the semantic content also has a
significant influence on the artistic effect of the language game. At the same
time, the category of pragmatics exists in both semantic and syntactic types of
the language game.
Having analyzed S. Dovlatov’s
individual style in respect of the aspect of language game we defined that such
type of semantic language game as the metonymy is actively used by S. Dovlatov
in the early and mature periods of his writing.
The purpose of the analysis is to determine the
specific features of S. Dovlatov’s creative works in terms of functioning such
semantic mechanism as the metonymy, and to figure out the evolution of its
usage throughout S. Dovlatov’s literary works.
The metonymy is “the regular or occasional substitution of one subject’s
name by another, which is associated with this subject by contiguity,
adjacency, involvement in one situation” (Gulak 56). The metonymy is defined as
“a semiotic pattern that is manifested when the nomination of one event’s
component is transferred to another, the class name of objects is constituted
by the object, the designation of a part is used instead of the whole and the
whole instead of a part for contiguity within one situation” (Selivanova 104).
The classification of metonymic transfers based on logical-semantic links
between contiguity concepts is applied in the article. There are local,
temporal, attributive, causal and partitive (synecdoche) types of metonymic
transfers (Birikh).
Different types of the metonymy in the early S. Dovlatov’s literary works
perform an entertaining function which serves for creating a comic effect and
entertaining oneself and the interlocutor. For example, a comic effect in the
early story “The donkey needs to be thin” is achieved by the metonymic transfer
of partitive type (synecdoche): Вы помните случай с майором Барлоу? Он пошел на концерт органной музыки, а через неделю выбросился из
небоскреба. На месте его гибели обнаружили лишь служебный жетон. В общем,
майора Барлоу хоронили в коробке из-под сигарет... (Dovlatov 1: 76).
The synecdoche in the example is formed by the “whole – part” model (“man –
an object belonging to man”). Служебный жетон is used in the
nominative function, replacing the person of майор Барлоу. Creating unreal
situation is the starting point that causes the comic effect in the story.
The following example demonstrates the attributive metonymy performing the
entertaining function: В трамвае красивую женщину не встретишь. В полумраке такси, откинувшись на цитрусовые сиденья, мчатся длинноногие и бессердечные – их всюду ждут (Dovlatov 1: 182).
The attributive metonymies длинноногие and бессердечные regarded from originally longer multi-word combination where
the noun domination is defined by two adjectives, which reveals a particular
type of contiguity. Thus, the metonymy can be unfold to “длинноногие и бессердечные красивые женщины”. A. Kalinin remarks that “metonymy in adjectives
arises as a result of the simplification, “reduction” of certain word combinations,
and the possibility of such reduction depends on the contiguity of objects
whose attributes receive the same name” (Kalinin, 20).
In the example, the author speaks ironically about modern young women. The
attributive metonymic transfers are based on the characteristic features of
beautiful women (appearance – длинноногие, inner world – бессердечные: external beauty is united with internal ugliness).
So, two main features of beautiful young women stand out, and then form the
image of modern woman. These metonymies perform nominative and connotative
functions simultaneously.
Local
metonymic transfer (model “the container – its contents”) often serves to
euphemize the statement (the masking function) in the early S. Dovlatov’s
works. The author avoids the direct nomination of alcohol by using the name of
the alcohol container instead. The following example focuses on the size of
such container: Гаенко достал из кармана “маленькую” и нес ее перед собой, как фонарик (Dovlatov 1: 163).
In the above example, the comic effect occurs because
of the quivering attitude of the character to маленькая (‘a bottle of
vodka with a capacity of 0.25 liters’).
Metonymic transfers with euphemistic function are also typical for S. Dovlatov’s
works of the mature period. For example: Он протянул мне булькнувший сверток. Это была завуалированная форма гонорара. Глоток перед атакой (Dovlatov 1: 442). In the given fragment
the author combines attribute and local metonymies. The local metonymy сверток results
from “the subject – its contents” model. The participle булькнувший (which is
considered to be attributive metonymy: “an attribute, that characterizes the
object’s act – the sound produced by this object”) helps to understand the
content of the parcel. Then, there is the metaphor завуалированная форма гонорара in the next sentence. This metaphor in the
concentrated form explains why the characters were given this package and the
following parceled metaphorical construction глоток перед атакой describes what it means for them.
In the mature period of S. Dovlatov’s creative work, the language game
based on metonymic transfers provides an ironic effect. In this way, the causal
metonymy is the widespread metonymy type in the story “Zapovednik”. Productive
models “the author – the author’s work (creativity)”, “the person – the image
of this person” are aimed at “debunking” Pushkin’s myth. In “Zapovednik”
Pushkin “turns into the state property, the genuine interest is replaced by a
cult” (Serman 150). Thus, S. Dovlatov ironically represents those events that
debunk not only uneducated tourists, but also the workers of the Pushkin Hills
Preserve: <…> Например, сняли портрет Ганнибала.
– Почему?
– Какой-то деятель утверждает, что это не Ганнибал. Ордена, видите ли, не
соответствуют. Якобы это генерал Закомельский <…>
– Значит, правильно, что сняли?
– Да какая разница – Ганнибал, Закомельский...
Туристы желают видеть Ганнибала. Они
за это деньги платят. На фига им Закомельский?!
Вот наш директор и повесил Ганнибала...
Точнее, Закомельского под видом
Ганнибала. А какому-то деятелю не понравилось... (Dovlatov 2: 206-207).
S. Dovlatov raises the issue of hypocrisy and replacement of the original
exhibit of the preserve for the fake one. The author ironically (even
satirically) describes the case with the fake Hannibal’s portrait. By means of
the repeated causal metonymies, which are formed by the model “the name of a
person – a portrait of this person”, the author focuses the reader’s attention
on the fake museum exhibit and shows indifference of the Pushkin cult’s
servants. The main functions of metonymies are entertainment and
negative-appraisal.
Sometimes, causal metonymy represents the authorєs ironic attitude to
the Soviet ideology in Dovlatov’s mature works. For example, as in the story
“Compromiss”, the total devotion to ideological orientations is ridiculed. The
worship of communist symbols in the Estonian District Committee, which, as A. Genis
notes, “so diligently imitates the Moscow one, that, consequently, turns into
its caricature”. (Genis 81-82): На первом этаже возвышался бронзовый Ленин. На втором – тоже бронзовый Ленин, поменьше. На третьем –
Карл Маркс с похоронным венком
бороды.
– Интересно, кто на четвертом дежурит? – спросил, ухмыляясь, Жбанков.
Там снова оказался Ленин, но уже из гипса… (Dovlatov 1: 355).
The double metonymic constructions of the causal
type are used. They are formed according to the models “a person – a sculptural image of this person” and
“material – a product of this
material” (бронзовый Ленин, Карл Маркс, Ленин, но уже из гипса).
The expressive effect of the above metonymies is
also achieved by the inclusion of precedent names (the proper names of Soviet
political figures) in their structure. In V. Zaitseva’s opinion, the
expressiveness of the metonymy, which includes anthroponyms, depends on the
readers’ background knowledge. “They should be in the same national-cultural
space with the author of the publication. <...> These proper names not
only form secondary nominations, but function as symbols of a certain
historical time, create a national cultural background of the message”
(Zaitseva 15).
The main function here is the ironic one.
Inclusion of anthroponyms in the structure of metonymy also adds the illusion
of reality to the creative work.
Another feature of metonymy functioning in the S. Dovlatov’s mature period
prose is the creation of characters’ nicknames. Let us provide an example: Уже
несколько лет “соперник ветра”
работает барменом в Мюнди (Dovlatov 1: 262).
Соперник ветра is a metonymic nickname
of one of the riders in the example. In order to decode this metonymy, it
should be correlated with the official headline of the jubilee note about the
Tallinn Hippodrome “Соперники ветра” in the newspaper.
Causal metonymy concentrates the maximum amount of information in the
example. V. Telia says about this feature of creating secondary nominations the
following: “In the process of creating new names or nominations, the speaker
may have a need to identify a fragment of reality by adding his assessment to
it and also expressing an emotional attitude towards it” (Telia 336). So, S. Dovlatov
with the help of metonymy demonstrates his subjective attitude to the character
and the situation at the hippodrome in general.
In addition, the artistic effect is produced due to the arrangement of
these elements in strong positions: in the title of the note and in the final
phrase, forming the circular semantic composition of the chapter.
Partitive metonymy is also used for the comic denomination of characters in
S. Dovlatov’s creative works of the mature period. For example, in the story
“Compromiss” we meet metonymy of the partitive type, which is formed by the
“part – whole” model: Алла пришла в громадном коленкоровом сомбреро. Она им явно гордилась.
Я с тоской огляделся. Не хватало еще, чтобы меня видели с этим сомбреро Маринины подруги (Dovlatov 1: 272).
The partitive type of the metonymy transfer results from “the item of
clothing – a woman in this item” model. Combination the metonymy сомбреро with the
pronoun этим (‘which
expresses the speaker’s disapproving, ironic attitude to a person or object’)
helps narrator to express the negative attitude toward the portrayed character.
The main function of the metonymy in the given example is the attitudinal one.
Besides, several headlines of S. Dovlatov’s creative works are based on
partitive metonymy. The productive model of partitive metonymic transfer “part
– whole” is introduced in the names of such works as “Zona”, “Zapovednik”,
“Filial”. The article by K. Mechik-Blank is devoted to the headline
peculiarities of Dovlatov’s books: “Dovlatov’s headlines are denotative and
connotative at the same time. They sound neutral for those who open his book
for the first time. But after reading the headline reinterpreted, it becomes
like a predicate to the story” (Mechik-Blank).
So, according to K. Mechik-Blank’s opinion, “Zona” is “a simple narrative about
prison camp life for a person unfamiliar with the work. After reading the book,
its headline takes on a new interpretation. Dovlatov emphasizes the similarity
of the “zone” and the “big” world in the text, in letters to the publisher, so
that when the book is read to the last page, its headline sounds different than
it did at the beginning. It sounds as the definition of relations between the
prison camp and the life in liberty, which (relations) are built on metonymic
principle, where the part represents the whole and where the whole is, of
course, Russia” (Mechik-Blank).
The headline “Zapovednik” is another example which illustrates a synecdoche
with a “part –whole” relation. Thus, this headline, as well as
the “Zona”, can serve as the denomination of Russia-wide. K. Mechik-Blank
believes that “Zapovednik” without specifying “Pushkin” is considered to be an
ironic appraisal characteristic of the country” (Mechik-Blank). L. Tikhonova, the deputy director in
Mikhailovskoye, also considers this story to be “deeply symbolic”. “It is not
said that it is our preserve. Maybe this image symbolizes the whole country”
(Covalova 290). Thus, we can talk about the interaction between metonymy and
symbol in S. Dovlatov’s mature prose. The author uses the strong position of
the headline to embody the figurative content.
K. Mechik-Blank considered the headline of the story “Filial” to be the
“metonymy of the creative elite” (Mechik-Blank). In the story the author
concentrates on the image of the literary emigration world.
The headline “Chemodan” is supposed to be the metonymy of the local type:
“the container – its contents” model. The following
interpretation of this headline becomes symbolic: a suitcase – its contents
(the hero’s personal belongings) – a funny
story about the hero’s life, associated with this object. The image of a person
is organized through a set of things presented in the collection of stories,
each story “attached” to a thing, taken from the author’s life (Shiryaeva 194).
“Chemodan” is S. Dovlatov’s memory of the “lost, priceless, unique life”. Thus,
according to N. Marova’s affirmation, the headline is the thematic and
ideological focus of the creative work, which (the headline) helps the reader to embody the author’s intention (Marova 172).
Having analyzed the metonymy, as a semantic mechanism for creating a
language game, we find out the following features of its functioning in S.
Dovlatov’s early and mature creative works. The early period of S. Dovlatov’s
writing is characterized by the predominant use of partitive and attributive
metonymy types for creation a comic effect. Partitive metonymy prevails in the
creation of unreal situations in the stories. Creation elliptical structure is
the typical feature of attributive metonymy. Local metonymy is often used for
making euphemistic statements. “The container – its contents” model is a
widespread local metonymy model for both periods: the early and the mature ones
of the writer’s works.
The causal type of metonymic transfers greatly prevails over other types of
metonymy in the mature period of S. Dovlatov’s works. Productive
models “author – the author’s work (his creativity)”
and “a person – the image of this person” are
aimed to create irony as in the story “Zapovednik”. Using precedent names in
the causal metonymy structure helps to create a reality effect; precedent names
also act as symbols in S. Dovlatov’s texts.
Causal metonymy is the productive means for creation characters’ nicknames
in S. Dovlatov’s individual style. Such nicknames perform an attitudinal
function in the stories. Partitive metonymy also often reflects the author’s
subjective attitude toward the characters.
Many headlines of S. Dovlatov’s mature stories are based on causal or local
metonymy types. In such cases, the interaction of metonymy and symbol is the
characteristic feature which actualizes additional, implicit meanings. The prospect for the research
includes the study of other typical semantic and syntactic mechanisms of
creation language game in S. Dovlatov’s early and mature periods of creativity.
References.
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Надійшла до редакції 24 березня 2018 року.
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