Article.
Антоніна Мосійчук
УДК 811.111’159.9(73)
POSITIVE THINKING VS. NEGATIVE THINKING:
METAPHORICAL CONCEPTUAL MODELS AS A FORMAT OF REPRESENTATION
З’ясовано лінгвокогнітивний механізм формування
концептів ПОЗИТИВНЕ МИСЛЕННЯ і НЕГАТИВНЕ МИСЛЕННЯ як частини сучасного
американського світобачення, встановлено метафоричні концептуальні моделі, які
слугують форматом репрезентації позитивного і негативного стилів мислення в
сучасній американській лінгвокультурі, та вербальні засоби їх вираження.
Ключові слова: когнітивна лінгвістика, концепт,
позитивний стиль мислення, негативний стиль мислення, метафорична концептуальна
модель,аналогове мапування, концептуальний аналіз.
Along with classical psychology,
which mostly targets mental disorders and personality pathologies, the field of
practical or applied psychology is currently gaining in more popularity. Within
the latter, there is a separate school of positive psychology, which primarily
focuses on the ability of people to attain a positive mindset through changing
their own thinking and behavior. Founded by M. Seligman (Seligman), a prominent
American social psychologist, it has its own theoretical framework and
practical application. The development of the approach has resulted in the
emergence of a separate genre of popular psychological literature represented by the works of N. Peale (Peale), D. Carnegie (Carnegie and
Carnegie), L. Hay (Hay), etc. Taking into account the undeniable connection of
human thinking and language posited by cognitive linguistics (Lakoff, Johnson),
the language of positive psychology has come into focus of linguo-cognitive studies, which are mostly aimed at analyzing
the concepts underlying it. Present-day linguistic research has
approached positive thinking as a concept in the unity of its ideological (Bordyuk), conceptual, and evaluative (Karpova) content as well as discourse (Kyrychuk). Notably, being a constituent part of culture, it has been analyzed as an important linguoconcept of modern American worldview
(Karpova).
This study focuses on metaphorical conceptual models underlying the formation of the concepts of POSITIVE THINKING and NEGATIVE THINKING as part of
American worldview and linguistic means of their
representation. The material of the research is the book of practising American
psychologists, trainers, and coaches B. Tracy and Ch. Tracy Stein “Kiss That
Frog: 12 Great Ways to Turn Negatives into Positives in Your Life and Work”. In
the book, Brian Tracy and his daughter, therapist Christina Tracy Stein, who
both specialize in personal growth and leadership skills, delve into a variety
of effective techniques and strategies intended to change one’s mindset from
negative thinking to positive thinking (Tracy, Tracy Stein 3).
The object of
this study is metaphorical
conceptual models determining the formation of POSITIVE and NEGATIVE THINKING
concepts as part of modern American worldview. The subject of the research is linguistic and cognitive
characteristics of the linguistic units verbalizing the concepts under
analysis. The aim of the article is
to reveal metaphorical conceptual models underlying the concepts of POSITIVE
THINKING and NEGATIVE THINKING in modern psychological literature.
The fact that the study is conducted
in the framework of cognitive linguistics predetermines topicality of the research enabling us to use the achievements of
related scientific schools,
cognitive psychology and cognitive poetics in particular (Freeman; Kovesces).
The linguo-cognitive perspective of the
article gives a possibility to establish the mechanisms of the formation of the
POSITIVE THINKING and NEGATIVE THINKING concepts thereby disclosing their linguo-cognitive nature.
The hypothesis of the research is the assumption that the concepts of
POSITIVE THINKING and NEGATIVE THINKING are
bipolar formations structured at the conceptual level by conceptual metaphors
as the units of human conceptual experience and expressed in a verbal form
through certain linguistic means. The former are
activated in an individual while reading the books, listening to the lectures,
or participating in psychological training dealing with the positive perception of reality. It is also
supposed that appealing to the people’s subconscious and conscious levels of
thinking, positive psychologists use a repertoire of linguistic units and structures, which reprogram the recipients’ models of
negative thinking thereby substituting them by a set of different schemes
forming a positive attitude.
In the paper, the positive style of thinking refers to the optimistic and
confident perception of objective reality which helps an individual to reach
true happiness (Tracy, Tracy Stein 60) while the negative style of
thinking is associated with a pessimistic life stance and restricted vision
of the situation which prevents one from achieving well-being. This study
hypothesizes that positive thinking and negative thinking are embodied in certain metaphorical conceptual
models characteristic of them.
The prerequisite of the formation of metaphorical conceptual models is the presence of two conceptual domains: the source domain and the target domain containing structured human knowledge and experience (Evans, Green 167; Lakoff 206-209). The source domain is organized by abstract structures of experience, which are conceptualized in terms of more concrete and understandable notions contained in the source domain (Dirven,
Verspoor 34; Taylor 132-133). The projection of image-schemas grounded in common sensor-motor experience on the knowledge structures in the target domain is known as the operation of analogical mapping, which is based on the human cognitive ability for the
analogical conceptualization of reality – i.e., revealing similarity between objects, abstract notions,
and their characteristics (Freeman). Thus, in the sentence Your mind is like an
extraordinary computer that you can preprogram to accomplish amazing things (Tracy,
Tracy Stein 58) the lexical unit mind
activates the corresponding concept MIND constituting the target domain while
the lexical units computer and preprogram activate the concept
COMPUTER. Through metaphorical projection of the conceptual implications of the
concept COMPUTER – machine, programming – on the related
conceptual implications of the concept MIND,
one arrives at the metaphorical
conceptual model MIND IS A COMPUTER that can be programmed. This way, the
connotative meaning of the sentence is interpreted and understood in terms of
the above-mentioned metaphorical conceptual model: human mind is a computer that can
be preprogrammed by people to do amazing things (achieve their goals, unleash
their potential, etc.). Hence, the methodology
of the research is based on conceptual and interpretative analyses allowing us to determine
metaphorical conceptual models that are embodied in the semantics of the
lexical units (Strilchuk 8). It incorporates two stages: 1) the analysis of negatively and positively
charged lexemes, which disclose conceptual implications indicative of NEGATIVE
and POSITIVE THINKING concepts respectively; 2) analogical mapping of the
conceptual implications of the source domain onto those of the target domain
with the aim of revealing metaphorical conceptual models the analyzed concepts
are grounded in.
The title of B. Tracy and Ch. Tracy Stein’s book
“Kiss That Frog: 12 Great Ways to Turn Negatives into Positives in Your Life and Work” contains an
allusion referring the reader to a world-famous fairy-tale about a frog and a princess. The latter was unwilling to kiss the frog but finally
overcame herself turning the frog into a young handsome prince who married her
(Tracy, Tracy Stein 1-3). Notably, the authors use this metaphorical allusion
not without a purpose as fairy-tales are widely employed in psychological
counseling as a powerful instrument of psychoanalysis due to their ability to
touch upon the depth of human subconsciousness. Overall, the ability of all levels of language to evoke
images in the addressee’s consciousness is effectively utilized by
psychologists. Among lexico-stylistic means, encompassing similes, euphemisms,
hyperboles, allusions, and others, metaphorical formations with their immense
potential take the leading part (Belova 5). Patients often employ
metaphors while describing their personal problems thereby avoiding painful
memories, topics, or taking responsibility for their life. Since metaphorical
linguistic expressions are linked to metaphorical concepts in a systematic way
(Lakoff, Johnson 7), they are analyzed in the paper to reveal the metaphorical
conceptual models underlying the concepts of POSITIVE THINKING and NEGATIVE
THINKING.
In the
course of conceptual analysis, it has been found out that NEGATIVE THINKING and
POSITIVE THINKING are represented in the book by three types of conventional
metaphorical models: ontological,
structural, and
orientational.
Ontological metaphorical models are based
on humans’ experience with physical objects, their own bodies, in particular, offering “ways of viewing
events, activities, emotions, ideas, etc., as entities and substances” (Lakoff,
Johnson 25). Thus, HUMAN MIND IS A PHYSICAL OBJECT
metaphor allows to conceptualize THOUGHTS
as OBJECTS THAT CAN BE EXCHANGED: exchange a positive thought for a negative
thought (Tracy, Tracy Stein 68). Further, MENTAL ACTIVITY can be
understood in terms of MOVEMENT. Consequently, NEGATIVE THINKING IS MOVEMENT
BACK:
remove all those fears,
doubts, insecurities, negative emotions, and false
beliefs that hold you back (Tracy, Tracy Stein 10) while POSITIVE THINKING IS MOVEMENT FORWARD: leap forward confidently (Tracy,
Tracy Stein 83). From this standpoint, NEGATIVE MENTAL THOUGHTS are conceptualized as OBSTACLES that deter people from achieving their goals: the biggest obstacles that stand
between you and an extraordinary life are usually negative mental attitudes
toward yourself and others (Tracy, Tracy Stein 3). Another ontological
metaphorical model embodying the concept NEGATIVE THINKING is NEGATIVITY IS
WEIGHT: you must get rid of all the old baggage and negativity that
holds you back, like leadweight
(Tracy, Tracy Stein 103); you get rid
of the baggage of the past and unleash your potential (Tracy, Tracy
Stein 105). In the given examples,
negative emotions are conceptualized in terms of weight or baggage that
prevents people from moving forward and realizing their potential. On the contrary, POSITIVE THOUGHTS are
understood as LIBERATION FROM RESTRICTIONS: You
liberate your mind from the constraints of day-to-day work and bill
paying. You practice what is called “blue sky thinking”, a hallmark of
top people and peak performers in every area (Tracy, Tracy Stein 12). Thus,
positively charged lexemes liberate and blue sky thinking are indicative of the conceptual implications
of the POSITIVE THINKING concept – freedom, liberty.
Structural metaphorical models help to further structure the
experience delineated by ontological metaphors (Kovesces 39). Accordingly, the ontological
metaphorical scheme MIND IS A PHYSICAL OBJECT is organized in terms of the
model MIND IS A COMPUTER that can be
programmed: The second and perhaps most
powerful technique of mental programming is visualization. The more you
feed your mind with clear mental pictures of the person you want to be and the
results you want to achieve, the deeper these commands go into your
subconscious mind (Tracy, Tracy Stein 61). Another metaphorical model MENTAL
ACTIVITY IS PROCESS can be detailed through
the structural metaphorical model MENTAL ACTIVITY IS BUILDING where POSITIVE EMOTIONS are conceptualized as BUILDING BLOCKS: The two most powerful positive emotion builders are the phrases
“I like myself” and “I am responsible” (Tracy, Tracy Stein 93).
Orientational metaphorical models are based on spatial
relationships, such as UP
– DOWN, FRONT – BACK, IN – OUT, FORWARD – BACKWARD, ON – OFF, CENTER – PERIPHERY, NEAR-FAR, grounded in human spatial
experience (Lakoff 56-60; Taylor 134-135). The dominating
orientational metaphorical model embodying NEGATIVE THINKING is NEGATIVE IS
DOWN: preprogram and reprogram yourself
to feel and act with confidence and self-control, especially under stress
(Tracy, Tracy Stein 59). The analyzed example shows that negative
emotions often accompanied by stress make people feel down with negativity
overpowering them. Conversely, positive thinking is conceptualized in terms of
the model: HAPPY THOUGHTS ARE UP, POSITIVE IS UP: happy, fulfilling, uplifting thoughts that lead to positive actions and results (Tracy, Tracy Stein 8); when you raise the self-esteem
of another, your own self-esteem goes up in equal measure (Tracy, Tracy Stein 94).
Along with conventional metaphors
constituting the conceptual system of a culture, there are imaginative and
creative metaphors “capable of giving us a new understanding of our experience.
Thus, they can give new meaning to our pasts, to our daily activity and to what
we know and believe” (Lakoff, Johnson 140). The analyzed illustrative material
allowed us to reveal a number of powerful unconventional metaphors: NEGATIVE
EMOTIONS ARE FROGS: five major factors cause people to create negative
emotions and hold on to them. These are some of the worst frogs of
all, swimming deep in the darkest waters of the emotional swamp
(Tracy, Tracy Stein 39); …negative
emotions alive by feeding them with thought and energy (Tracy,
Tracy Stein 46). According to the authors, almost all people have a “frog” they
need to “kiss” in order to become truly happy (Tracy, Tracy Stein 2) and
transform their lives. Since kissing the
frog is usually associated with something unpleasant or even disgusting, the
authors use this image to refer to NEGATIVITY: All of us have a frog that we need to kiss, sometimes
several frogs. The frogs in your life are negative people,
situations, and past experiences; current problems; and
your doubts and self-limiting beliefs. Some frogs are risks
and commitments you have to make if you want to get unstuck and move
ahead (Tracy, Tracy Stein 17); your
job is to "kiss that frog" and find the positive elements that
exist within every situation, to deliberately turn every negative into a
positive, and to unleash (Tracy, Tracy Stein 10). Conceptual analysis of the
negatively charged lexemes negative,
problems, doubts, self-limiting, risks allows us to reveal the metaphorical model NEGATIVITY (NEGATIVE PEOPLE,
SITUATIONS, EXPERIENCES, PROBLEMS, DOUBTS) IS A FROG that prevents people from realizing their potential and attaining their
dreams. Further, there is a group of unconventional metaphorical models
underlying the concepts MIND and THINKING.
They are MIND IS A POND: He discovered that negative emotions,
ugly frogs that squat in the back of your mental pond, are the
primary obstacles to enjoying the happiness (Tracy, Tracy Stein 28); MIND
IS A GARDEN, POSITIVE THOUGHTS ARE FLOWERS, NEGATIVE THOUGHTS ARE WEEDS: Your mind is like a garden: if you do not deliberately cultivate flowers, weeds will grow
automatically without any effort on your part. If you do not deliberately plant
and cultivate positive thoughts, negative thoughts will grow in
their place (Tracy, Tracy Stein 8). In conclusion, the conducted research helped to
identify analogical mapping as the main mechanism of the formation of POSITIVE
THINKING and NEGATIVE THINKING concepts. The latter are grounded in two groups of metaphorical conceptual models:
conventional (ontological, structural, and orientational) and unconventional
ones. The results of the conceptual analysis demonstrate that the concept
NEGATIVE THINKING has such conceptual implications as regress (MOVEMENT BACK),
feeling restricted or limited (WEIGHT, OBSTACLES), being displeased or feeling disgusted (FROG). Conversely, POSITIVE THINKING
can be characterized by such implications as growth, development, and progress
(BUILDING, MOVEMENT FORWARD, UP) and feeling free (LIBERATION FROM
RESTRICTIONS). On the verbal level,
the above implications are correspondingly manifested through negatively and
positively charged lexemes. Overall, the popularity of positive psychology
testifies to the focus of society on the positive style of thinking as a
characteristic feature of modern American worldview. Further research will be
aimed at establishing the linguistic and cognitive mechanisms of the transition
from a negative to a positive mindset through disclosing a set of corresponding
conceptual schemes and the changes they undergo. This step will demonstrate the
potential of metaphorical conceptual
models as an effective tool for programming and reprogramming
an individual’s outlook.
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List of Sources
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Negatives into Positives in Your Life and Work. San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler Publishers, 2012. Print.
Надійшла до редакції 13 березня 2018 року.
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