Article.
Olena Shtylenko DOI 10.31558/1815-3070.2018.36.14 УДК 81’42 MODAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SPECULATION AS A TYPE OF SPEECH Статтю присвячено розгляду модальної характеристики
одного з мовних типів – «роздум». У статті обґрунтовується можливість проводити
поділ мовних типів, ґрунтуючись на модальній характеристиці пропозиції. При
цьому, у науковому тексті можна враховувати тільки два типи мовлення – опис і
роздум, – оскільки розповідь в основному пов'язана з біографічними фактами,
ходом особистих експериментів, відомостями з історії науки тощо. До того ж опис
і розповідь можна розуміти як єдиний феномен із синхронічною та діахронічною
віднесеністю до зображеної дійсності відповідно. При такому підході можна
вважати, що роздум завжди модально забарвлений, а опис модально нейтральний,
тобто роздум являє собою сильний маркований член опозиції, а опис – слабкий
немаркований. У статті також
відзначається можливість використовувати розглянутий матеріал при навчанні
іноземців нерідної мови. Ключові слова: тип мовлення, роздум, опис,
розповідь, модальність, маркований елемент. Despite
the fact that the purposeful study of speech types (description, narration,
speculation) has been conducted since 1970s, there are still no clear
linguistic criteria for their distinguishing in the scientific text. According
to some references, there is no consensus either on the number of speech types
or on their linguistic traits. Indicative in this sense is the presence of a
large number of terms used in research papers to name this phenomenon: speech
types, ways of presentation, functional-semantic types of speech, forms of
expressing thoughts, logical units, communicative speech registers, speech
modes and others. As for the «internal»
division of speech types, in this case there is an infinite number of
variations. For example, G. A. Zolotova includes to the communicative speech
patterns, or registers, the following types: descriptive-narrative,
descriptive-descriptive, informative-narrative, informative-descriptive,
informative-logical, evaluative-qualifying, generalizing-logical (Zolotova,
1982 ). In addition, each speech type may have different contents. For example,
the following types of speculative texts are distinguished: 1) substantiation,
2) proving
(refutation), 3) inference, 4) explanation (statement) (Yakubova 140).
It seems that there is no limit to such fragmentation. More substantial study
of the styles and literature genres will undoubtedly make it possible to
distinguish some other speech types, specific to each style and genre.
Moreover, all attempts to characterize speech types functionally grammatically,
i.e. through the description of speech types using syntactic structures (e.g.
Motina) seem unsuccessful. There are many confusing moments in this field. For
example, the phrase «Metals are plastic» by E. I. Motina
should be referred to the description. And if we say, «After
all, metals are plastic», «Of course, metals are plastic»,
or «Metals
are plastic. Therefore, they are widely used for the manufacture of various
products by stamping». So the question arises, whether this is also a
description or, after all, a speculation. The models of such structures given
by the authors can be easily found in different types of texts, although there
are syntactic constructions that have a «rigid»,
or strong attachment to a specific type of speech. We believe that the
principles of the sentence analysis used by the authors, mentioned above,
cannot always be applied to the entire text. It
is more appropriate, in our opinion, to carry out the division of speech types,
based on the modal characteristic of the sentence, which, so to say, «stratifies»
the structural pattern of the sentence and creates a specific coloring of the
speech type easily perceived by the native speaker. Since this approach has not
yet received sufficient coverage in the linguistic literature of the relevant
direction, the goal of the article under consideration is an attempt to justify
the fundamental possibility of distinguishing speech types based on the modal
meaning of the sentence. At the same time, we will focus on the speech type of
speculation, in which the signs of a special modality are most clearly
expressed. The main task of the analysis is to identify the features of the
modal qualification of the speculation as a speech type as well as the
linguistic means of its expression. We consider
it expedient to remain at the same time within the framework of the
traditionally distinguished three types of speech, namely, description,
narration and speculation. But mention should be made that we do not consider
the description and narration to be fundamentally different speech types. The
closeness of description and narration has been repeatedly noted in various
studies. For example, V.I. Svintsov, who researches the structure of the text
from the logical point of view, notes that «... with this
approach, the descriptive and narrative types of text, in fact, are extremely
close. The difference between description and narration is, actually,
determined by the synchronic and diachronic aspects of the displayed fragments
of reality, respectively» (Svitsov, 1979, p. 140-141). In addition, the
division of descriptive texts into description and narration is, of course, not
excluded, but among description, narration and speculation any kind of division
must be performed on more than one basic principle (See, for example, Vannikov,
1984, pp. 24-25). So,
as it can be seen from above, only two types of speech — description (both
static and dynamic) as well as speculation — can be
taken into account in a scientific text, because the narrative is more related
to biographical facts, the course of personal experiments, certain information
related to the history of science, etc. In this case, the speculation as a type
of speech is defined in a common sense, including proof, inference,
controversy, refutation, explanation, etc. A
modal meaning can be expressed in the language by a variety of grammatical,
lexical, and intonational means. Since the communicative purposefulness of
speech types is different, then the means of expressing modality involved in
the formation of speech types will also differ. Thus, depending on the presence
(or absence) of certain linguistic means expressing the modal meaning in the
sentence, it is possible to conclude that the sentence belongs either to the
description or the speculation type. Thus,
we can assume that the speculation always has modal coloring, and the
description is modally neutral, i.e. the former is a strong marked unit of the
opposition, and the latter is a weak unmarked one. We
offer to consider the reasons for the special modal qualification of the
speculation speech type, given its extra-linguistic nature. Speculating in
general (as well as other types of mental activities) can be defined as a
mental analysis of the arguments with the aim of proving one view or another
and stating one’s point of view in a logically consistent form. «In
brief, speculation is the transition from premises to conclusion»
(Kondakov 513). At the same time, as rightfully noted in scientific papers, «inference
in its full form is relatively rare in speech, even in science»
(Solganik 39-40). The
transition from the background to the consequence is the main semantic
connection underlying the construction of various substantiations and
conclusions, the main purpose of which is to give true, reliable knowledge.
Such a connection is made in the language by various means (connectors and
modifiers like thereafter, it means,
therefore, thus, in this connection, on the basis, thereby, as a result,
etc.). So, many other researchers quite legitimately include cause-and-effect
constructions in their speculation, trying to find the syllogism at the base of
each such construct. However, using the syllogistic apparatus of traditional
formal logic, one can prove either the truth of the statement or its falsity.
However, this does not annihilate the possibility of other, intermediate,
characteristics of a statement, since «between
to be and not to be, it turns out, there is an infinite number of different
shades, confidence in being or uncertainty in it, susceptibility, expectation,
various assumptions, either unreasonable, or justified by various hidden
possibilities, as yet not manifested
being, etc». (Losev 141). In addition, there are many
non-syllogical conclusions, which once again prove the impossibility of
reducing all the richness of forms of thinking to Aristotle’s classical
syllogism. In
the epistemological activity of human beings,
probabilistic knowledge plays a huge role. According to it, statements are
studied as those which «take
not only two values of truth (true / false), but also many intermediate degrees
of probability, such as statements, the true meanings of which are enclosed in
the gap between truth and falsehood» (Kondakov 82). V.I. Svintsov
believes that the generic concept of “argumentation” covers all methods of
proving and justification. «The first involves the use of reliable
arguments, from which the thesis follows with necessity. The second is based on
the use of probable assumptions and / or probabilistic inference schemes»
(Svintsov 212). At the same time, in the latter, the modal characteristics of
both the premises and the conclusion can be expressed by the «graded
modal characteristic», i.e. such expressions as probably, very likely, unlikely, plausible, less believable, more plausible,
etc. (ibid., 213, 215). Let
us cite the point of view by V.I. Svintsov, which we also share, that it is
possible, of course, to convince the reader of the accuracy of the information,
not only by logical reasoning (Ibid., 203). There are other motives for the
emergence of belief. «As such motives, various criteria can be singled
out: the correspondence of the evaluated information to other messages about
the same event (fact), the reliability of the source of information (as applied
to a specific informant, assessment of its readiness and
integrity), reliability of the procedure for obtaining it, conditions of
storage and transmission, social authority of the author or publisher, etc.».(
Ibid., 210). Under
these conditions, what would be the difference between description and
speculation / argumentation? After all, the speculation – a strong, marked unit
of the opposition will always include a certain characteristic of truth /
untruth of any kind, authenticity / unreliability of knowledge. A description,
however, will not have such a characteristic, since «the
very fact of the existence of descriptive and narrative texts implies the
fundamental possibility of such a connection between separate elements of
textual structures, which does not include proving processes. These elements
can join each other on the basis of affirmation (information believed by the
author and potentially accepted by the addressee) of their coherence» (Ibid.,
205-206). All
of the above presents the logical aspect of the problem. In addition, the
division of speech patterns into modally colored and modally neutral goes back,
in our opinion, to dialogical thinking, in general. It is no wonder that in
philosophical works the focus of attention has been on the problems of dialogue
(postmodern concepts), which was previously considered as the basis of creative
thinking (see, for example, Bibler). In his work, the author expresses
confidence that the crucial role of the logic of dialogue in the development of
creative thinking is unquestionable. In
this connection, the issue of studying the nature of not only monologue but
also dialogue per se, which leads to the study of the dialogical phenomenon
(dialogization), i.e «The manifestation of a number of signs of
dialogue in the written scientific texts» (Kozhina 23).
As the research shows, there have been two ways of understanding this problem.
Some researchers (for example, Slavgorodskaya, 1979) believe that in the
written scientific literature only certain elements of the dialogue, used for
stylistic purposes, can function. Others (for example, Kozhina, 1981) consider
this phenomenon to be a natural property of the language, a consequence of the
dialogical thinking in general. «The complete disappearance of
dialogism from the written language – even the monologue in its outer
characteristics – is obviously impossible at all (especially in the scientific
sphere of communication), because in this property of speech the social nature
of a language (its communicative function) is revealed»
(Kozhina 25). What
caused the phenomenon of dialogue in the seemingly monologue scientific speech?
What are the origins of dialogue in general? It can be assumed that the source
of the development of monologue speech in speculation is the internal
contradiction («dialogue») between the author and his
opponent. In this case, the opponent may, of course, be both a particular
scientist, the point of view of any group of people, the author himself who
opposes his own ideas, and finally, it may be the reader to whom the author
constantly calls, proving something, arguing, mentally talking, logically or
emotionally convincing in the rightness of the ideas stated. In
a scientific speech, «when introducing new knowledge and to facilitate
its perception, the author builds his message based on the addressee’s
reaction. Hence, there is an abundance of question-answer complexes, more or
less detailed explanations, clarifications, and returns to topics which already
seem to have been discussed before. The proving of a theorem or a scientific
hypothesis is related to its refutations of both real and potential opponents.
It is always aimed at the addressee, at eliminating his objections, doubts, his
misunderstanding. At the same time, the scientific text, being the final result
of the inner dialogue of a scientist, and directed to an imaginary opponent,
has linguistic means of its own, reflecting this internalized dialogue and this
orientation to the reader» (Krasavtseva 128). The material studied by N.A.
Krasavtseva (scientific texts on medicine, mathematics and physics written in
English) made it possible to single out the most frequent means and ways of
expressing dialogue. These include: a) in research papers and articles – modal
verbs with infinitives, first-person narrative, introductory words and phrases,
question-answer complex; b) in reviews and abstracts – introductory words,
links and references, conjunctions and particles. In addition, the author
refers to the means of the dialogue in the imperative statement, emphatic constructions,
exclamatory sentences, modal-evaluative constructions, titles in the form of a
rhetorical question (Ibid., 129). All these characteristics to some extent will
be inherent in the speculation speech type and are directly related to the
category of modality. The
considered material may have a practical usage, for example, when teaching
foreigners to communicate in their second language (for example, USL / RSL).
This is especially true in connection with the active introduction of
problem-based learning at universities. «Problem in teaching and learning is a
powerful stimulus for the development and formation of all the components
necessary from the point of view of the methodological level of the educational
paradigm of such a construct as the personality of a student - a future
specialist» (Ushakova 117-118). Based on the linguistic data obtained, it
becomes obvious that when teaching international students it must be borne in
mind that descriptive texts present a certain difficulty both for creation and
for perception. It is very difficult to “sustain” the text within the framework
of one modality («modality of actual reality»),
since this is the least natural type of text. This, however, does not mean that
descriptive texts should be avoided in the beginning of learning written
scientific speech. It is just that their number should be redistributed in
favor of other types of text and, in particular, texts of speculation speech
type. After
stating above all the theoretical suggestions, we believe that the scope of the
necessary skills in generating written scientific speech should include the
ability to express various intentions included in the concept of speculation /
argumentation. These include a wide range of means to express opinion, agreement,
disagreement, refutation, giving examples, explanation, proof, doubt,
suggestion, clarification, assessment of reliability, synthesis, conclusion. This
list can be updated and supplemented depending on the specific objectives of
the learning process. In addition, serious attention should be paid to the
means of expressing the semantic relations contained in the intentions. So, the
cause-effect relationship of meaning can have the following linkers: for this reason, due to this, it means, in
this case, nevertheless, etc. And the semantic relations between conclusion
and generalization are presented, for example, by such connectors: thus, as a result, so generally speaking, in
short. Unfortunately, in the existing practice of teaching scientific
speech to international students little attention is paid to text-forming
elements, which ensure the harmony, clarity, and consistency of presentation.
In
general, this direction of studies requires further research both in
theoretical and in methodological aspects. In future, the approach, offered by
the author of this article, will remain relevant to the analysis of the
features in the modal sphere of speculation texts in various kinds of
scientific papers, textbooks, polemical materials etc. Summarizing, we note that
the dependence of the modal qualification of the speech type known as
speculation on the above extra-linguistic factors once again confirms the idea
actively expressed in recent years about the anthropocentric structure of the
language.
References.
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